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Biology > B6.3 - Monitering And Maintaining Health > Flashcards

B6.3 - Monitering And Maintaining Health Flashcards

1
Q

What is a communicable disease and example

A

Can be spread between organisms. Eg. Athletes foot, tuberculosis, crown gall disease, tobacco mosaic

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2
Q

What is a non-communicable disease

A

One that cannot be spread between organisms. E.g. diabetes, unhealthy diet, cystic fibrosis

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3
Q

What is HPV

A

Human papilloma virus is a cell change that causes cervical cancer that is usually in girls

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4
Q

What is HIV

A

human immunodeficiency virus weakens a persons immune system as virus replicates in white blood cells. Unable to make antibodies and causes AIDS and tuberculosis due to tuberculosis causing bacteria

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5
Q

How can pathogens spread in animals

A
  • through the skin : open cuts and wounds
  • through digestive system: eating food and drink
  • through respiratory system : breathing it in and inhaling
  • through reproductive system: sexual intercourse and exchange of bodily fluids
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6
Q

How do pathogens spread in plants

A
  • vectors such as insects
  • direct contact with the sap of infected plant with healthy plant
  • wind. Airborne fungal spores and spread disease.
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7
Q

Incubation period

A

The time delay from which the harmful microorganisms enter your body and time you start feeling unwell.

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8
Q

How do viruses replicate

A
  • the virus attacks a cell
  • the virus attaches and transfers it’s gene
  • it tells the nucleus to copy its genes
  • new viruses are made
  • the cell bursts and viruses released destroying the cell
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9
Q

Incidence of a disease

A

Rate at which new cases occur in population over a period of time.

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10
Q

How to prevent spread of communicable disease

A
  • cover your mouth when coughing or sneezing
  • do not touch infected people or objects
  • no sharing of needles (disease passed through blood)
  • using protection (prevent exchange of bodily fluids)
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11
Q

General hygiene

A
  • wash hands
  • cook food properly to inhibit food poisoning through e.coli and salmonella
  • drink clean water
  • protect from animal bites
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12
Q

How do farmers prevent spread of communicable disease

A
  • livestock not moved
  • plants burnt to prevent spread
  • given drugs however sometimes herds slaughtered
  • chemical dips given for farmers footwear to kill pathogens
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13
Q

Human infections - fungal

A

Athletes foot is caused due to fungal infections of parasitic fungi ‘dermatocytes’ with hot, humid and wet environment. Causes itchy, red and flaky skin and is highly contagious from skin to skin contact. Fixed with anti-fungal cream.

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14
Q

Human infection - bacteria

A

food poisoning is caused due to growth of microorganisms in food such as salmonella and e.coli, in unpasteurised milk, raw meat, uncooked food and dirty vegetables. Causes vomiting, diarrhoea however fixed in few days and must freeze food.

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15
Q

Human infection - STI’s from unprotected sex and genital contact

A
  • chlamydia; painful when urinating and discharge - antibiotics
  • gonorrhoea; pain when urinating and vaginal discharge - antibiotics
  • genital herpes; blisters and sores - no cure (virus)
  • HIV; weaken immune system with AIDS - no cure but use antiretrovirals
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16
Q

What is HIV and AIDS

A

Human immunodeficiency virus causes weakened immune system as virus replicates in white blood cells. This means, cells that produce antibodies will not be able to and becomes target of everyday infections and unable to fight. AIDS is the final stage when body no longer able to fight.

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17
Q

Plant diseases - virus

A

Tobacco mosaic disease is when the virus attacks leaves making them mottled and discoloured. It prevents the chloroplasts from forming which stunts the growth and decreases the yield with lower quantity and quality.
To prevent - plants are removed and only crops that are resistant should be planted in infected areas.

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18
Q

Plant disease - bacteria

A

Crown hall disease formed when bacteria (A. tumefaciens) enters through wound. The large plasmid of bacteria integrates with host’s genome and produces a growth of chemicals that is much more than needed. This leads to a tumour like growth as ‘galls’. This carries on and encircles the stem and trunk cutting the flow of sap. Causes stunted growth and eventual death.
To prevent - infected plants should be destroyed and removed and other susceptible plants should be avoided for 2 years until bacteria dies out without host plant.

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19
Q

Plant disease - fungal

A

Powdery mildew is fungal disease due to high temp and humidity, where white powdery spots form on plants leaves. Through wind, where fungal spores are blown and reduces growth and makes leaves drop early whilst reducing crop yield by 10-15%.
To prevent - spraying crop with fungicide.

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20
Q

Physical plant defences

A

Physical barriers that prevent microorganisms entering

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21
Q

Chemical defences

A

Substances secreted by the plant that kill microorganisms

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22
Q

Physical defence examples

A

Waxy Cuticle - prevents water loss from plant and prevents pathogens from coming into direct contact with epidermal cells and limits chance of infection. This is because they are hydrophobic and made from fats and lipids which prevents water and fungal infections from germinating.
Cell wall - physical barrier provides structural support through cellulose fibres. These are cross linked with substances such as pectin which forms a gel to cement neighbouring cells together.

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23
Q

Chemical defences examples

A

Insect repellent - which kill insect vectors that carry disease such as citronella in lemon grass
Insecticides - to kill insects such as pyrethins from chrysanthemums.
Antibacterial compounds - which disrupt bacterial cell wall such as phenols and defensins which disrupts cell membrane such as alcohol.
Antifungal compounds - kills fungi through chitinases with enzymes to break down chitin found in fugal cell wall.
Cyanide - make chemicals that break down to form cyanide when plant is attacked and kills all living organisms

24
Q

Diagnosis

A

Correctly identifying the existence of a disease to control an outbreak.

25
Q

How to identify plant diseases

A
  • observation of leaves
  • microscopy; identity pathogens by their shape
  • DNA analysis; using DNA profiles to compare the plant pathogens genomes and identify individual strains of microorganisms
  • identification of antigens; diagnostic kits to identify common crop pathogens and prevent significant damage
26
Q

How does a scab form

A
  • a open wound causes blood to come to surface
  • platelets in blood cause the blood protein fibrinogen into fibrins which is a network of fibres.
  • red blood cells get trapped in network causing a blood clot
  • this dries to form a scab and will fall off
27
Q

Human body defences

A
  • skin which contains sweat glands that produce oil to kill microorganisms
  • in tears have enzymes lysozymes which destroy bacteria
  • nasal hairs to trap large microorganisms
  • Cilicia cells and mucus to trap and move mucus into stomach
  • stomach has acid which kills pathogens in food and drink
28
Q

Phagocytes

A

Engulf pathogens and then make enzymes that digest microorganisms

29
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Make antibodies (proteins) that bind to antigens (proteins on surface of patho) which is then ingested by a phagocyte and destroyed.

30
Q

Immunity

A

Already having antibodies that destroy pathogens before they cause illness as body has made them before.

31
Q

Monoclonal antibodies

A

Made when body unable to make white blood cells to fight and kill pathogens.
Lymphocyte + myeloma = hybridoma

32
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produced

A

GM mice are injected with required antigen which makes their immune system produce antibodies for specific antigen. They make lymphocytes which are collected. However cannot survive outside body so infused with myeloma and reproduce to make fused cell - hybridoma. Forms clones and produces required antibody which is harvested as proteins.

33
Q

pregnancy testing

A
  • strip contains monoclonal antibodies which bind with protein hCG (after two weeks of conception) to make colour change reaction. This is the line that appears indicating the woman is pregnant.
34
Q

Detecting disease

A

Monoclonal Antibodies act as markers and bind to specific antigens which confirms its presence. They can bind to prostate cancer cells and allows doctors to diagnose at early stages which is essential for successful treatment.

35
Q

Treating cancer

A

Monoclonal antibodies target specific cells, kill them and prevent them from operating. Carry drugs ne radioactive substances directly to cells and increase the success of treatment whilst minimising damage on tissue.

36
Q

How does vaccine work

A
  • small amount of weakened and dead version (inactive) of pathogen inserted through needle.
  • antigens in vaccine stimulate your white blood cells to make antibodies
  • antibodies destroy antigens without any risk of being infected
  • immune to future infections by pathogen and body can respond rapidly to make correct antibodies as if already had disease.
37
Q

What are children vaccinated against

A
  • polio, tentnus, whooping cough, meningitis, HPV, MMR
38
Q

How successful are vaccinations

A

1900 - UK child mortality 14%
2000 - dropped to 0.5%

39
Q

Whooping cough graph

A

-introduced in 50’z large drop in whooping cough infections
- safety scare in 70’s caused vaccination rate to drop and no. Of children with it increased.
- 80’s vaccination levels were much higher and so were the number of cases.

40
Q

Antiseptics

A

Kill and neutralise all types of pathogens without damage to human tissue such as alcohol and iodine

41
Q

Disinfectants

A

Applied to non-living surfaces to kill pathogens

42
Q

Antivirals

A

Destroy viruses and prevent from replicating such as HPV, herpes and flu
- block the virus from entering host cell
- prevent virus from releasing genetic material
- prevent virus from inserting genetic material into host genome.

43
Q

Antibiotics

A

Kill bacteria without damage to cells and no effect on virus and fungi. Scientists grow bacteria on agar plate and treat with antibiotics to see which is most effective and will prescribe.

44
Q

Zone of inhibition

A

Find area of circle.
The larger the area, the more effective the antibiotic

45
Q

Aseptic technique

A

Prevents foreign microorganisms from being introduced into test sample and cross-contamination

46
Q

Aseptic techniques examples

A
  • wash working area with alcohol - ensure no microorganisms present
  • wear gloves - prevent microorganisms passing into skin
  • autoclave glassware and apparatus- to sterilise and prevent unwanted contamination
  • work close to Bunsen - prevent unwanted micro falling into sample
47
Q

Bacteria practical

A
  1. Dip sterilised wire loop into sample
  2. Make 4 streaks across one edge where agar nutrients help bacteria colonies to grow
  3. Flame and cool loop
  4. Repeat 4 streaks
  5. Seal with tape but not fully as anaerobic conditions do not promote growth of pathogenic bacteria
  6. Label and incubate
48
Q

How are drugs made

A
  • plant extracts
  • in lab with use of computer modelling to produce list of compounds that target a particular condition
49
Q

Preclinical testing

A

Testing on live cells, bacteria and tissue cultures before living organisms

50
Q

How are drugs developed

A
  1. Tested on animals: two animal species in UK before next
  2. Tested on humans (clinical trial)
    - must be tested on healthy volunteers for unexpected side effects
    - small sample of volunteers (100) who suffer from condition to see how effective it is
    - large sample of people (1000) with condition to see if it is safe and works well.
51
Q

Who approves drugs

A

MHRA - medicine and healthcare products regulatory agency

52
Q

Placebo effect

A

When people feel better because they expect to feel better after taking medication.

53
Q

Overcoming placebo effect

A

Researchers use ‘double blind trial’ where give drug to patient and give replica to another without active ingredients. Neither the doctor nor patient know which one is drug and placebo till after test is over.

54
Q

Drugs on animals

A

Some people believe it is unethical to use animal for drug testing due to conditions kept in:

Reduction - use smallest amount of animals possible and share results of research instead.
Refinement - improve experiments to avoid unnecessary suffering with excellent medical care
Replacement - replace use of animals over cell cultures and computer models

55
Q

Limitations of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • as lymphocytes will make specific to antigen, will not work for every pathogen in contact
  • long process
  • high cost
  • May result in new allergens

Biology (10 decks)

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