Bandung Era

Question 1

overview of Bandung Conference

Answer 1

29 newly independent countries meeting to promote non-alignment, self-determination, and South-South unity.

Post World War II, state-led, builit on decades of earlier activism (Asian Underground)

way to forge allies

Question 2

what does Naoko Shimazu talk about?

Answer 2

performative diplomacy

Question 3

What does Shimazu call the Bandung Conference?

Answer 3

“a highly choreographed performance”

Question 4

Shimazu main points

Answer 4

symbolic meanings produced through the conferences staging. “Freedom Walk” performative diplomacy.

designed to convey unity, and was “as significant as the political discussions”

Collective identity, messgae of equality through the posing.

media amplified this (New York Times)

nations could collectively assert their presence on the world stage.

Question 5

Africa state

Answer 5

of the 29, only 6 from Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Gold Coast, Liberia, Libya, and Sudan.

3-man delegation for Ghana

connected African experiences with Asian

Pan-African solidarity and its future saped by Bandung despite partial independence

Question 6

African-American

Answer 6

inspired later Black Liberation movements in the US

Parallel between decolonisation and civil rights movements.

Question 7

what came out of Bandung?

Answer 7

Final Communique

Question 8

What was the Final Communique?

Answer 8

10 principles for guiding relations for South-South solidarity

Question 9

What were some of the principles of the Final Communique

Answer 9

1. economic cooperation
2. cultural exchange
3. human rights (comdemning racism)
4. solidarity in national liberation movements
5. peace (UN reform, nuclear disarmament & sovereignty)

Question 10

G.H. Jansen on Non-Alignment

Answer 10

it was a strategic policy adopted by Afro-Asian countries.

asserted independence and resistance to neocolonial pressures, fostering solidarity

deliberate choice to pursue independent foreign policy.

to avoid conflict and focus on domestic

Question 11

G.H. Jansen on failure of Non-Alignment

Answer 11

economic dependency and political instability undermined cohesion of the movement

Question 12

Christopher J. Lee

Answer 12

Bandung as World Making

Question 13

What does Lee mean by World Making?

Answer 13

created shared political imagination among decolonised nations

all visions not communist or capitalist.

not under developmed, but a conscious political force.

“Collective ambition”

creating alliances across borders.

Question 14

Lee about Bandung’s legacy

Answer 14

although ideas faded politically, endured symbolic and intellectually through Non-Alignment, Pan-Africanism, Global South solidarity at the UN.

Question 15

Vijay Prashad key idea

Answer 15

Third World as a “project”

“The Third World was not a place. it was a project”.

but failed due to conflicting ideologies, neoliberalism, debt crises, and western institutions. (IMF)

Question 16

Mark T. Berger on the failings of Bandung

Answer 16

Reliance on nation state led to its decline

offered alternative to western and soviet alliances, but often promoted national interests.

despite this, continued to influence contemporary debates on global inequality and development.

needs to be studied to analyse current global dynamics and possibility for alternative politiacl projects.

Question 17

Kumal Jumblatt

Answer 17

Lebanese intelelctual 1971

“the struggle against imperialism in order to prove their existence and the force of their personality”

to colonial, “Africa and Asia are on ething, and the Western countries another”

thats why they dropped the atomic bomb on Asian soil and not their European enemies at the concluding moments of World War II.

Question 18

what was the non-alignment movement?

Answer 18

a coalition of newly independent countries (Asia, Africa, Latin America) who refused to align with either the US or the USSR during the Cold War.

sought to protect sovereignty, promote economic justice, and oppose imperialism, both Western and Soviet.

Question 19

key figures present at Bandung

Answer 19

Sukarno (indonesia)
Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
Nehru (India)

Question 20

core principles of Non-Alignment

Answer 20

1. respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity
2. rejection of military alliances (NATO or Warsaw Pact)
3. Opposition to colonialism and neocolonialism
4. Peaceful coexistence and mutual respect.
5. Commitment to economic development and independence.

Question 21

when was the establishment of Non-Alignment>

Answer 21

Belgrade 1961, Bandung laid the ideological groundwork

Question 22

Odd Arne Westad on NAM

Answer 22

argues that NAM globalised the Cold War by creating a third force.

highlights NAM’s role in shifting Cold War diplomacy away from Europe

Sees Bandung as an expression of postcolonial agency and anti-imperial vision

Question 23

Westad key quote:

Answer 23

“non-alignment was not neutrality, but resistance - a refusal to be subsumed by the superpower rivalry”

Question 24

critiques of NAM

Answer 24

argues it eventually became fragmented with internal contradictions

some members leaned towards either the US or USSR in practice

national interests overrode collective solidarity

however, still view it as a critical early model of South-South diplomacy

Question 25

date and roots of the New International Economic Order

Answer 25

1974 major postcolonial initiative by Global South to reshape the global economy after political decolonisation. deeply tied to the legacies of colonialism, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Bandung spirit.

Question 26

What was the New International Economic Order 1974?

Answer 26

set of proposals adopted by the UN General Assembly in May 1974 aimed to restructure global economic relations to be fairer to developing postcolonial nations driven by members of NAM and G77(Group of 77) many of whom were recently decolonised countries about economic decolonisation - undoing the global economic structures that colonialism had left behind.

Question 27

Key goald of NIEO

Answer 27

1. greater control over natural resources by formerly colonised countries 2. fairer terms of trade between South and Globalised North 3. increased development aid and technology transfers from North to South 4. regulation of multinational corporations 5. a voice in international economic institutions (IMF, World Bank, WTO)

Question 28

Bandung and NAM Legacy

Answer 28

economic continuation of the political principles set at Bandung emphasised self-determination, solidarity, and South-South cooperation.

Question 29

NIEO failure

Answer 29

IMF and World Bank remained controlled by the North US and UK especially rejected NIEO principles many historians argue that the NIEO's failure entrenched economic dependency, leading to the rise of neoliberal globalisation in the 1980s.

Question 30

Japanese Occupation overview

Answer 30

moving into previous colonial spheres: Philippines 1941 1942 Singapore 1942 land in Indochina Shattered mystique of western colonialism and white greatness

Question 31

Mark Bradley on Vietnam

Answer 31

many wars, anti-colonialism with France, Cold turned Hot war with the US, civil war between North and South, and revolutionary war of ideas.

Question 32

Japanese in Vietnam brief overview

Answer 32

September 1940, invaded northern French Indochina wanted control over strategic ports and resources (rice and rubber) for its imperual ambitions in Southeast Asia. March 1945 stages a coup and removed the French, setting up the Empire of Vietnam, Japanese puppet state.

Question 33

1941Vietnam

Answer 33

Ho Chi Minh returns to Vietnam, founds the Viet Minh to ressit both French and Japanese

Question 34

1944-45 Vietnam

Answer 34

Vietnamese suffer under brutal Japanese rule and rixe requisitioning, causes the 1945 famine, killing 1-2 million

Question 35

August 1945 Vietnam

Answer 35

Japan surrenders, power vacuum allows Viet Minh to seize Hanoi, leading to the Declaration of Indepence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

Question 36

Ideological impact of the Vietnam case:

Answer 36

exposed contradictions in western claims to civilising missions and democracy proved that European colonialism could be replaced, sparking broader anti-colonial visions across asia

Question 37

Ho Chi Minh at Bandung

Answer 37

his strategy of combining Marxism, nationalism, and guerrilla resistance inspired many Global South leaders.

Question 38

David Marr on Vietnam

Answer 38

argues that the Japanese occupation unintentionally advanced the cause of Vietnamese naitonalism, despite its brutality. Japan's destruction of French authority in March 1945 created a vacuum that allowed the Viet Minh to step in and seize power.

Question 39

Vietnam and Bandung wider context

Answer 39

the idea that asian people could defeat colonial powers was born in WWII and validated at Bandung, with Vietnam's early declaration of independence in 1945, often referenced symbolically.

Question 40

Benedict Anderson on Indonesia

Answer 40

not just nationalist, social transformation (pemuda) (power vacuum) about destroying the colonial social order. Japanese created a new political consciousness and practical tools for revolution nation-building from below

Question 41

Anderson Indonesia quote

Answer 41

"the pemuda, not the politicians, seized the revolution's initiative" nation-building from below.

Question 42

Indonesia under Japanese Rule overview and date

Answer 42

1942-45 japan invaded the Dutch East Indiees in early 1942, quickly defeating the Dutch colonial forces the occupation lasted until Japan's surrender in August 1945 days later Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence, turnign point in decolonisation.

Question 43

rickels M.C on Indonesia

Answer 43

Japan was brutal and extractive but also accelerated the nationalist movement. forced labour, and rural suffering as deeply scarring, but politically galvanising "the Japanese period was paradoxical, an era of suffering, yet also of profound awakening".

Question 44

Japan political awakening in Indonesia

Answer 44

broke vision of European invincibility in Asia by empowering nationalist leaders, Japan inadvertently accelerated anti-colonial organisation

Question 45

Japan militirising Indonesia effect

Answer 45

armed and trained thousands of young Indonesians, many of whom would fight the Dutch from 1945-1949 created discipline fighters and organisers.

Question 46

Indonesia Bandung Legacy

Answer 46

Sukarno, who declared independence in 1945 and hosted the Bandung Conference in 1955 came of age politically under Japanese occupation the experience of strategic collaboration, combined with Pan-Asian rhetoric, shaped Sukarno's vision of non-alignment, anti-imperialism, and Afro-Asian solidarity.

Question 47

Indonesia 1965

Answer 47

6 Indonesian army generals kidnapped and killed led by General Suharto, blamed the PKI massive coordinated purge 500,000-1 million, PKI banned, shift in foreign policy from left-leading under Sukarno to pro-western under Suharto. Sukarno did not denounce the PKI, Suharto was able to ban the PKI and dismantly Sukarno's leftist coalition and consolidate control.

Question 48

US and Suharto

Answer 48

viewed PKI (third-largest communist party) as major threat supported Suharto through listing PKI members and sympathisers, financial and material support, Diplomatic cover and denial.

Question 49

United Kingdom in Indonesia

Answer 49

covert propaganda campaign that linked fake stories linking PKI to atrocities. forgeries and media manipulation amplifying the narrative that the army was "restoring order" aimed at Western press, UN, and indonesian elites, helping to justify the massacre internationally.

Question 50

Sukarno

Answer 50

1964 to US ambassador "Go to hell with your aid" house arrest forbidden from political activity speeches and writing censored role minimised by Suharto's regime died in 1970, in disgrace and silence.

Question 51

R.E. Elson on Sukarno

Answer 51

Indonesian unity through Guided Democracy notes that decolonisation was interrupted by internal ideological fractures, especially between military, communist, and religious factions.

Question 52

John Roosa on Indonesia

Answer 52

aftermath of decolonisation after the 1965 purge of the PKI argues that revolutionary independnece was undone by Cold War violence and the destruction of the left. sees 1964 as a second colonisation, this time by US aligned military authoritarianism. "the promise of the revoliutioan was betrayed by a counter-revolution in 1965".

Question 53

Decolonisation of Malaya overview

Answer 53

negotiated, elite-driven transition to independence, shaped by British strategic interests, Cold War, and attempts to contain communism.

Question 54

Malaya timeline

Answer 54

1942-45 Japanese occupation 1948-60 Malayan Emergency communist insurgency leads to British counterinsurgency war 1957 Independence to elite non-communist coalition 1963 creation of malaysia

Question 55

Karl Hack on Malaysia

Answer 55

Britain was successful not just because of military, but population control, psychological warfare, political engineering. How counterinsurgency shaped post-colonial governance structures.

Question 56

British strategic retreat

Answer 56

carefully managed Malaya's decolonisation to preserve key economic and military interests (rubber and tin, navel bases, influence during Cold War)

Question 57

John Darwin on malaya

Answer 57

Malaya exemplifies "imperial adaption" not a collapse - part of Britain's strategy to maintain post-imperual influence.

Question 58

Containing communism - the Malayan Emergency 1948-60

Answer 58

a guerrilla insurgency led by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) composed largelt of ethnic Chinese fighters British wages brutal counterinsurgency war using forced resettlement (New Villages) psychological operations, collective punishment tactics. helped justify British military and political control emergency less about independence more about justifying continued British military and political control.

Question 59

Malayan elite-driven decolonisation:

Answer 59

partnered with Malay aristocrats and conservative elites avoid mass nationalist mobilisation by excluding radical left-wing voices (MCP) independence came with preservation of colonial-era institutions

Question 60

Anthony Stockwell on Malaya

Answer 60

British decolonisation in Malaya was a model of "top-down control" designed to prevent radical transformation

Question 61

British manipulating ethnic divides

Answer 61

entrenched ethnic divisions: 1. Malays (favoured politically) 2. Chinese (dominant in commerce) 3. Indians (labourers) British manipulated communal identities to weaken leftist solidarity and maintain control after independence these divisions were institutionalised through the New Economic Policy and racialised citizenship laws

Question 62

Benedict Anderson on Malayan ethnic divides

Answer 62

postcolonial Malaysia illustrates how colonial categories were reabsorbed into nationalist projects.

Question 63

Malaya neocolonial continuity

Answer 63

even after 1957, britain retained economic dominance, military bases, and diplomatic influence. malaysia remained firmly within Western Bloc, joining anti-communist alliances. post-independence elites maintained colonial hierarchies limiting genuine decolonisation