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behaviour and emotions Flashcards

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1
Q

what affects behaviour?

A

it is influenced by internal states and sensory input

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2
Q

what is the structure of all homeostatic systems?

A

they all have a sensor that compares the current state of a variable to a set point
if there is a difference it sends an error signal to an effector
the effector produces a response that counteracts the perturbation
the response acts on the variable and brings it back to the set point

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3
Q

what are the 3 main parts of the brain that regulate hunger?

A

the lateral hypothalamus that induces hunger using the orexigenic pathway
the ventromedial nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus that induces satiety through the anorexigenic pathway

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4
Q

which 2 hormones induce hunger?

A

orexin and MCH
they stimulate the lateral hypothalamus

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5
Q

which hormone induces satiety and where is it released from?

A

leptin
it is released from fat cells

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6
Q

what is the mechanism of the hormone leptin?

A

it causes body fat to reduce by decreasing appetite
it binds to receptors on neurons in the arcuate nucleus activating them to inhibit hunger
it inhibits neurons that activate the lateral hypothalamus

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7
Q

how does leptin affect metabolic rate?

A

it affects the autonomic nervous system
the sympathetic nervous system increases metabolic rate and parasympathetic decreases it

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8
Q

how does high blood glucose stimulate satiety?

A

receptors in the hypothalamus detect high blood glucose levels
insulin affects neural activity
they both activate satiety-inducing neurons and inhibit hunger-inducing neurons

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9
Q

how does the stomach tell when we are hungry?

A

neurons detect when the stomach is empty and release ghrelin that activates hunger-inducing neurons

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10
Q

how does the intestine tell when we are full?

A

neurons in the intestine detect nutrients and stimulate the brainstem by releasing CCK to induce satiety

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11
Q

where is the amygdala located?

A

the anterior end of the hippocampus

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12
Q

what is the role of the amygdala?

A

involved in aggression with the hypothalamus
the medial hypothalamus controls affective aggression (e.g. fighting a threat)
the lateral hypothalamus controls predatory aggression (e.g. killing prey)

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13
Q

what is the role of dopamine in emotions?

A

it encodes for reward prediction
it drives motivation

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14
Q

what is the role of the orbitofrontal complex?

A

it is involved in stress response

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15
Q

what did James-Lange suggest about emotional experiences?

A

a sensory input causes a physiological reaction that the brain interprets as an emotional experience

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16
Q

what is the newest theory of emotional experiences?

A

sensory inputs cause a physiological reaction that is interpreted cognitively and the brain interprets this as an emotional experience
cognitive interpretations are affected by culture and conditioning

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17
Q

what are the 3 methods of measuring physiological activity?

A

electromyography (EMG): measures muscle movement
electro-oculography (EOG): measures eye movements
electroencephalography (EEG): measures brain activity

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18
Q

how does electroencephalography work?

A

it measures synchronous electrical activity from large populations of neurons in the brain by finding the potential difference between 2 electrodes

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19
Q

what causes potential difference between 2 electrodes in the brain?

A

cellular ionic movement which creates an electric field

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20
Q

how is electroencephalography (EEG) done?

A

the electrodes are placed on the scalp and they detect electrical fields
the electrodes link to an electrical amplifier and a monitor that produces a graph

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21
Q

how does EEG measure the individual activity of different areas of the brain?

A

each electrode produces a single line on the graph

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22
Q

what are the advantages of EEG?

A

non-invasive
easy to administer
high temporal resolution so changes are detected in milliseconds
easy to collect data

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23
Q

what are the disadvantages of EEG?

A

low spatial resolution so requires a large population of neurons
electrical fields follow an inverse square law (the further from the source of the electrical field the smaller the signal)

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24
Q

what are the main types of brain waves detected by EEG?

A

alpha, beta, delta and theta

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25
what are the two phases of sleep?
REM (rapid eye movement) non-REM
26
what happens during non-REM sleep?
neuronal activity is low and fewer action potentials are fired between neurons metabolic rate and temperature of the brain are at their lowest heart rate and blood pressure decline decreased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and increased activity of the parasympathetic muscle tone and reflexes are intact
27
what happens during stage 1 of (drowsiness)?
the person is awakened easily eyes move slowly muscle activity slows sudden muscle contraction (twitches) sensation of falling low voltage EEG activity delta waves detected
28
what happens during stage 2 of (light sleep)?
eye movements stop brain waves slow with occasional bursts of activity body temperature lowers heart rate slows bursts of sinusoidal waves called 'sleep spindles' and biphasic waves called 'K complexes'
29
what happens during stage 3 of sleep (deep sleep)?
very slow delta brain waves interspersed with smaller faster waves some people experience sleep walking, night terrors or sleep talking
30
what happens during stage 4 of sleep (very deep sleep)?
brain only produces very slow delta waves
31
what happens during stage 5 of non-REM sleep (transition to REM)?
EEG mimics wakefulness low voltage EEG with mixed frequencies eyes closed but move rapidly from side to side
32
what happens during REM sleep?
body temperature and metabolic rate increase because there is an increase in neural activity all skeletal muscles are atonic and paralysed so won't move (except muscles controlling eyes, ears and diaphragm)
33
what is the pattern of REM and non-REM?
a person usually enters REM sleep after around 80-100 minutes and REM lasts for 8-10 minutes the stages are repeated 4-5 times most time is spend in stage 2
34
how is sleep regulated?
by a large number of areas in the brain such as neurons in the diffuse modulatory neurotransmission system
35
how does the diffuse modulatory neurotransmission system regulate sleep?
by releasing norepinephrine and serotonin into the brainstem controls rhythmic behaviour in the thalamus and inhibits motor neurons
36
what causes a person to wake up?
neurons in the brainstem being activated which has a depolarising effect
37
how is non-REM sleep initiated?
the hypothalamus is activated causing decreased firing to the brainstem
38
how is REM sleep controlled?
neuron firing is similar to being awake but there is no activity in the frontal lobe or brainstem
39
what are the 3 theories of why we dream?
images are produced by the brain not functioning fully or they are produced by the brain activating synapses even when there is no external activity to check they are working correctly memories being consolidated
40
what is the circadian rhythm?
the body's natural internal clock that causes sleep-wake cycles in 24 hour periods
41
how is the circadian rhythm regulated?
modulated by environmental cues regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus sensory stimulation (e.g. light) isn't necessary but the cycle will shift without it
42
how does light regulate the circadian rhythm?
when intrinsic photosensitive ganglionic cells in the retina are activated by light they input into the suprachiasmatic nucleus
43
what is learning?
understanding new information
44
what is memory?
storage of learned information
45
what is recall?
re-understanding of stored information
46
what is the engram?
the physical embodiment of a memory
47
what are the 2 forms of memory?
procedural memory: skills unavailable to the conscious mind (e.g. sports) declarative memory: skills available to the conscious mind (e.g. languages or symbols)
48
what are the 2 forms of recall memory?
implicit: a memory that can't be controlled explicit: a memory that can be consciously recalled
49
what 3 types of memory are implicit?
procedural memory classical conditioning priming
50
what is classical conditioning?
when you learn to associate one stimulus with another one stimulus causes an unconditional reaction
51
what is priming?
when one stimulus influences the response of a subsequent stimulus
52
what type of memories would playing an instrument or studying be?
playing an instrument would be both procedural and declarative studying would be mainly procedural
53
what is the reverberating circuit theory for storing memories?
when memories are formed neurons are activated and they stay active to retain the memory the process of forgetting a memory is when the neurons stop firing
54
why is the reverberating circuit theory disprooven?
it would require too much energy for neurons to fire constantly
55
what is the Hebbian synapse concept for storing memories?
when neurons connected by a synapse are activated at the same time the strength of the synapse increases more neurotransmitter is released so there is a larger EPSP during memory formation there is an increase (facilitation) or decrease (depression) in synaptic strength and this change can be long or short term depending on calcium ion availability and vesicle number
56
what is longer term potentiation?
an increase in synapse strength after high-frequency stimulation
57
how can long term potentiation be induced in a synapse?
using tetanic (high frequency) stimulation to stimulate two neurones at the same time and increase the synaptic strength between them
58
how does long term potentiation lead to association between 2 stimuli?
the neurons that receive the inputs from the stimuli form a stronger connection
59
what is the process of long term potentiation?
1. the presynaptic neuron is activated by a stimulus and an EPSP is generated at the postsynaptic neuron 2. this causes an influx of calcium ions and trafficking of AMPA and NMDA receptors to the postsynaptic membrane 3. the calcium ions bind to receptors and activate kinases that phosphorylate the AMPA receptors 4. this is amplification as more AMPA receptors are expressed and depolarisation increases
60
what is long term depression?
similar to long term potentiation but it leads to a decrease in the amplitude of the EPSP when neurons are activated by a low frequency for a longer time causes a decrease in synaptic strength
61
what is aplysia californica?
a sea snail they have a simpler nervous system with a gill and gill withdrawal reflexes to protect it
62
how does aplysia californica show sensitisation memory?
if you poke the snail it will withdraw its gill but if you shock the snail and them poke it the withdrawal will be bigger because it is sensitised
63
how does aplysia californica show habituation memory and associated memory?
repeated gentle stimuli causes reduced gill withdrawal (habituation memory) gentle stimuli paired with harder stimuli increases gill withdrawal (associated memory)

Neuroscience (9 decks)

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