Big thing Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
How is visual acuity assessed in infants
A
Assessed by using preferential-looking paradigm.
Infants presented with a succession of paddles with increasingly narrower stripes and narrower gaps between them until infant can no longer distinguish between stripped paddle and plain gray one.
2
Q
At what distance can a baby at birth see?
A
Can see 8-10cm from face: distance between baby & mom’s face.
3
Q
Does synaptic pruning differs across domains?
A
Yes. Synaptic pruning happens earlier in some functions than others. E.g. earlier in sensory pathways than language (and earlier in language than higher cognitive functions).
4
Q
What’s an evidence of perceptual narrowing in face perception
A
Infants becoming face specialists. They demonstrate the other-race-effect
5
Q
Is object segregation present from birth? Explain with an experiment. Give the ages.
A
No, learned by experience. Experiment with the cube with the whole rod vs broken rod.
4 month olds: Preferred to look at the broken rod.
Newborns: Looked the same amount of time at broken rod and single rod.
6
Q
How is the monocular depth perception assessed?
A
Visual Cliff experiment. 6 months olds will not crawl over visual cliff but younger children will.
7
Q
How can we use music to study auditory development? (2)
A
(1) Similarity to language
(2) Evolution
8
Q
How is music similar to language? (3)
A
(1) Both require to apply a set of rules/principles to organize/make sense of the auditory world.
(2) Both engage multiple regions/processes in brain
(3) Correlated: we can learn about one by studying the other
9
Q
How is music useful to the study of evolution? (3)
A
(1) Music is innate: responses to music are present in utero.
(2) Music is universal: music production exists in every society studied to date.
(3) Music is adaptive: it fulfills multiple functions in human society.
10
Q
Anatomy: Outer and middle ear
A
When something in the world moves or vibrates, it creates a wave that travels into the auditory canal. Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, triggering vibrations in three small bones (malleus, incus, stapes).
11
Q
Anatomy: Central nervous system
A
Electrical signals travel along the auditory nerve, through the brainstem and into primary auditory cortex in the right and left temporal lobes.
12
Q
Melody (3 characteristics)
A
(1) A sequence of pitches that has some logical sense.
(2) Made up of intervals; thus, at least 2 pitches are required.
(3) Has a contour (a pattern of intervals going up and down).
13
Q
Why are pitch, melody, beat, rhythm and timbre important in auditory development?
A
Help infants learn how the sounds of their native language map onto meaning.
14
Q
Why does the fetus only hear low-frequency sounds?
A
The earliest cells to develop are responsive to low frequencies, and the latest cells to develop respond preferentially to high frequencies. -> cells in cochlea develop in a TONOTOPIC fashion
15
Q
What’s identification in music and why is it important?
A
Ability to perceive discrete speech sounds (phonemes). Important for the development of language.
16
Q
Basic auditory abilities (3) (Already developed at birth)
A
Localization, Identification, Discrimination
17
Q
Why does the process of perceptual narrowing of pitch occur? (2) i.e. the fact that the ranges of pitches infants can discriminate gets more narrow.
A
(1) Attachment. Being able to bond with caregivers is more likely to ensure survival; thus, the auditory system needs to be optimally sensitive to pitches emitted by caregivers.
(2) Language. Infants need to be able to adopt their native language(s); thus, a wider range of sensitivity ensures optimal language acquisition.
=> Parents also use pitch to draw attachment (IDS)
18
Q
When the mother is silent, the most prominent sounds that can be heard are: (3)
A
(1) Bowel sounds (irregular, ‘popping’)
(2) Maternal heartbeat (regular, slow)
(3) Fetal heartbeat (regular, fast)
19
Q
How does motor development evolve? (from … to … in the body)
A
from head to feet and from the midline of the body out.
movement from the head/trunk -> clapping -> marching
20
Q
Overall, children’s rhythmic abilities develop more slowly and are more variable than adults. Why is that?
A
Rhythmic abilities = Multimodal. And some of these brain regions don’t mature fully until late adolescence. (!!!Cultural familiarity also plays a role)
21
Q
We make a distinction between perceived & felt emotions. What is the difference?
A
Perceived emotion is inferred.
-> Linked to features of the musical stimulus (pitch, tempo…)
Felt emotion is evoked.
-> Linked to activation of the nervous system.
22
Q
Characteristics of motor milestone (2)
A
(1) Happen in orderly sequence, rarely out of order.
(2) Huge individual variation in the ages these milestones are achieved.
23
Q
Why do some babies skip crawling? (4)
A
(1) Upper body or core weakness
(2) Hypersensitive to the texture of the floor
(3) Tonic neck reflex still present
(4) Insufficient opportunity: baby not enough on the floor
24
Q
Explain the role of encouragement in motor skills by citing 2 examples.
A
1) In some countries, some infants are actively discouraged from crawling because of safety or hygiene concerns so crawl later or never crawl. (e.g., urban China)
2) Motor exercises in sub-Saharan Africa. Infants are more advanced in motor skill development than kids in North America. Common practices to do motor exercises with the kid, lead to earlier achievement of milestones.
25
Mechanisms Behind Motor Development: exlain early theories
Motor development governed by cortical maturation.
Brain maturation → motor cortex more mature → motor abilities achieved.
26
Mechanisms Behind Motor Development (6): exlain current theories
Motor development governed by complex interplay between numerous factors:
(1) Neural dev
(2) Increases in physical strength
(3) Physical abilities (posture control, balance)
(4) Perceptual skills
(5) Change in body proportions & weight
(6) Motivation
27
Why does motor development matter? (3)
(1) Enables active learning and expands an infant's world.
(2) Increases opportunities for learning
(3) Facilitates the development of skills in other domains (especially vision & social behavior).
28
[Physical world] Piaget's main propositions (2)
(1) Children's thinking is qualitatively different from adults' thinking.
(2) Cognition grows and develops through a series of stages.
29
[Physical world] Properties of Piaget's Stage theory (4)
(1) Children at different stages think in qualitatively different ways.
(2) Thinking at each stage influences thinking across diverse topics.
(3) Brief transitional period at the end of each stage.
(4) The stages are universal (not culture dependent) and the order is always the same.
30
What shows us that object permanence is fragile at 8 months?
A-not-B-error
31
A-not-B-error
Tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden. Until 12mo.
32
What are the 3 things Piaget affirms about children's learning?
(1) Children actively shape their knowledge of the world.
(2) Children learn on their own
(3) Children are intrinsically motivated to learn
33
[Physical world] Strengths of Piaget's Theory (4)
(1) Intuitively plausible depiction of children's nature as active learners and how learning progresses.
(2) Provides a good overview of children's thinking at different ages.
(3) Spans the lifespan
(4) Examines many cognitive operations and concepts
34
[Physical world] Weaknesses of Piaget's Theory (5)
(1) Piaget didn't use scientific method to develop theory.
(2) Theory depicts children's thinking as more consistent than it is.
(3) Children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized.
(4) Theory is vague about the mechanisms of cognitive growth.
(5) Theory underestimates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development.
35
Why is categorization important?
Helps makes sense of the world by simplifying it.
Allows children to make inferences and predictions about objects of the same category -> Extend knowledge to new stimuli. (e.g., if an animal breathes, a giraffe breathes).
36
[Physical world] Criticism of Nativist View (2)
(1) Overestimate infants' innate, cognitive understanding.
(2) Findings of nativist studies can instead be explained by Perceptual features of stimuli (e.g. gravity exp) & Learning from the environment
37
How do children learn from the environment? (2)
Children actively learn from the environment on their own.
(1) Trial and error
(2) Statistical learning
38
According to the "learning from the environment" theory, Statistical learning is ______ and _________.
innate, domain general
39
Factors Influencing Home Environment (2)
(1) Socioeconomic status (SES): Low SES associated with lower quality home environment.
(2) Culture: Determines the specific contents of what a child learns BUT process through which children learn is universal.
40
What's in a mind?
Desires, Knowledge, Intentions.
41
Why is it important to understand Intentions?
Enables Joint attention & Imitation. Step towards understanding the minds of others.
42
Imitation is critical for _______.
Observational learning.
One of the most fundamental ways that children learn most things.
-> Not passively imitating, but actively interpreting actions to figure out what to imitate. (e.g. bull bull doll study)
43
Theory of mind module
Innate brain mechanism devoted to understanding other people that matures over the first 5 years of life. (Nativist view)
44
What are the evidences for the theory of mind module? (3)
(1) Newborns have an inherent interest in faces.
(2) Culturally universal developmental trajectory of theory of mind.
(3) Temporoparietal junction and autism spectrum disorder.
45
Aside from the nativist theory, what are the other 2 explanations of the development of theory of mind?
(1) Improvement in Executive functioning (required in false belief tasks)
(2) Contribution of Social Interactions (mental state talk + siblings)
46
How do children learn? (Timeline) (4)
(1) Trial and error: From birth
(2) Statistical learning: From birth
(3) Observation and imitation: 9-12 months old
(4) Being taught by others: 3 year olds are more likely to learn from adults they see as reliable and expert in a domain.
47
Using high amplitude sucking paradigms, research has shown that newborns prefer ... (3)
(1) Speech sounds vs artificial sounds
(2) Mother's voice over another woman's voice
(3) Native language vs. other language
48
How do infants tell the difference between languages? (2)
(1) Different prosody
(2) Different speech sounds.
Easier time distinguishing between native language vs different language.
Harder time between languages that sound the same
49
Often what distinguishes similar speech sounds is _______________________________
voice onset time (VOT)
50
Voice onset time (VOT) def
Length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start to vibrate.
Exists on a continuum. But as adults, we see this more in categories.
51
Children’s Assumptions in Word Learning (7)
(1) Mutual Exclusivity Assumption
(2) Whole-Object Assumption
(3) Pragmatic Cues
(4) Adult’s Intentionality
(5) Grammatical Form
(6) Shape Bias
(7) Cross-Situational Word Learning
52
Categorical perception is useful because focuses listeners on sounds that are________________ while ignoring meaningless differences.
linguistically meaningful
E.g. difference between a 10ms VOT /b/ vs. 20ms VOT /b/ is meaningless in English
53
Explain the Preferential Listening Procedure
Speaker on either side of infant's head. When looks at speaker, a recording of speech plays (diff speech from each speaker).
How long an infant spends looking in a particular direction/ listening to a particular sound indicates how much they like it.
54
How to "Find" Words in Speech? (2)
Pick-up on patterns of native language via **statistical learning**.
(1) Stress Patterning
(2) Distribution of Speech Sounds (sounds that appear together = more likely to be words)
55
Limitations of First Words (2)
Overextension & Underextension
56
How do Children Learn Words? (2)
Children's assumptions about language & Social context (caregivers, peers)
57
Function of IDS (2)
(1) Draws infants' attention to speech: Infants prefer IDS to regular adult speech.
(2) Because infants pay greater attention to IDS, it facilitates their language learning.
58
How is Grammar Learned? (2)
(1) Parents and other caregivers (-> Model grammatically correct speech but generally don't correct children's grammatical errors)
(2) Statistical learning
59
The sensitive period for language is due to what?
Maturational changes in the brain whereby language brain areas become less plastic.
60
Evidence of sensitive period for language (4)
(1) Genie
(2) Recovery after Brain Damage
(3) Deaf Individuals
(4) Second language learners
61
What are the evidences for the "Two Separate Linguistic Systems"? (3)
(1) Language development in bilingual vs. monolingual children is very similar
(2) Children select language they use based on conversational partner
(3) Even if children mix languages, not a sign of confusion.
62
Explain the evidences that language development in bilingual vs. monolingual children is very similar (3)
(1) Have about the same vocabulary size when considering both languages.
(2) Same milestones: Say their first word roughly at the same time.
(3) Smaller vocabulary in each language separately vs monolinguals ONLY when you're restricting the counting to ONE language
63
Why bilingualism makes less likely the onset of Alzheimer's?
Bilingual individuals have to quickly switch between languages, which practices their executive functioning skills, especially cognitive flexibility.
64
Components of emotion (5)
(1) Neural response
(2) Physiological factors
(3) Subjective feelings
(4) Emotional expression
(5) Urge to take action
65
Evidence for basic emotions (2)
(1) Basic emotions are universal across cultures
(2) Basic emotions are present from infancy
66
At birth, infants experience 2 general emotional states. What are they?
(1) Positive: indicated by approach behavior
(2) Negative/distress: indicated by crying or withdrawal behavior
67
Basic emotions emerge in a _______________ over the first year of life.
predictable sequence
68
Frequency of anger declines after 24mo likely due to ___________________________ and __________________________.
(1) greater ability to express self with language
(2) improved emotion regulation skills
69
How is surprise adaptative?
Indicates that the world is working contrary to expectations and is thus important for learning.
70
Self-Conscious Emotions emerge once 2 things happened. What are they?
(1) A child has a (explicit) sense of self separate from other people → Emerges around 18 month of age (pass rouge test).
(2) An appreciation of what adults expect of them. Social understanding of what parents expect of them.
71
Recognizing parents' emotions enables _______.
social referencing
72
Social Referencing def
Use of parents' facial expressions and tone of voice to decide how to deal with novel/ ambiguous situations.
73
Why does emotion regulation improve? (3)
(1) Motor development
(2) Increased parental expectation that child should be able to manage their own emotional arousal (children internalize expectations and comply)
(3) Cognitive development
74
Risk taking in adolescence is due to ______________
Limbic system (emotional/reward processing) maturing before PFC (goal-directed behaviour, deliberation, and inhibitory control)
75
Type Approach to Temperament (Thomas et al.)
Easy, Difficult & Slow-to-warm-up babies
76
Easy babies (___%) def
40% of babies.
Adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish daily routines such as sleep and eating, and generally are cheerful in mood and easy to calm.
77
Difficult babies (___%) def
10% of babies.
Slow to adjust to new experiences, tend to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions.
78
Slow-to-warm-up babies (___%) def
5% of babies.
Somewhat difficult at first but become easier over time as they have repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations.
79
What are the 5 key dimensions of temperament in the dimensional approach?
(1) Smiling and laughter
(2) Distress (in infancy), Anger (in childhood)
(3) Fear
(4) Attention span
(5) Activity level
80
[dimensional approach to temperament] How are those 5 dimensions assessed? (2)
(1) Parent and/or teacher responses to questions assessing each dimensions
(2) Observing how kids react to lab tasks designed to assess each dimension
81
Implications of Temperament (2)
(1) Children contribute to their own emotional development through their temperament. (not conscious)
(2) Some children are easier to parent than others
82
[about showing emotions or not] Why do parents react the way they do? (3)
(1) Cultural differences:
- Emotional expression is more encouraged in independent vs. interdependent cultures
- Reactions to specific emotions differ by culture
(2) Generational differences in norms for emotional expression
- Family reactions to emotions when parents themselves were children: Intergenerational transmission of emotional reactions and regulation
(3) Parents' mood and emotions in the moment: Harder to be supportive if parent is having a bad day
83
Differential Susceptibility Hypothesis
Some children are highly sensitive to both negative AND positive environmental conditions.
84
Children with more difficult/negative temperaments have: (2)
(1) More behavioural problems if raised with low quality childcare.
(2) BUT have the lowest levels of behavioural problems if raised with high quality childcare.
85
What was Harlow's experiment?
Separated monkeys from their mothers and offered them 2 "surrogate mothers": Wire (with food) vs Cloth mother (without food).
86
John Bowlby's mission (intro)
Psychoanalyst who studied intense emotional distress of children orphaned during WWII. Hired by English government: Why orphaned kids (now all physical needs met) are still showing signs of intense distress?
87
Bowlby recognized two things, what are they?
(1) Distress due to separation from parents and not having emotional needs met.
(2) Behaviours observed (e.g., crying, clinging, searching) are adaptive responses to separation from an attachment figure.
88
Bowlby's Attachment Theory (2)
(1) Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachment to caregivers as a means of increasing chances of their survival.
(2) Development and quality of child's attachments are highly dependent on their experiences with caregivers.
89
Features of Attachment System (4)
(1) Proximity maintenance and seeking (children biologically motivated to stay close to caregiver)
(2) Separation distress (activates attachment system)
(3) Safe haven (caregiver provides comfort and a sense of safety - coregulation - once proximity and reassurance have been achieved, attachment system deactivates)
(4) Secure base (Caregiver provides a child with a sense of security from which they can explore the environment - cannot explore the environment is attachment system is activated).
90
Attachment styles (and %) (4)
(1) Secure (60%)
(2) Insecure/Avoidant (15%)
(3) Insecure/Resistant (10%)
(4) Insecure/Disorganized (15%)
91
What are the two determinants of Attachment Style?
Parenting & Genetics
92
(study) Children with at least one S allele (vs. 2 L alleles) had:
(1) More attachment disorganization if raised in institution
(2) Less attachment disorganization if raised with family
93
Why are the Variations in serotonin transporter gene a domain of interest?
S allele (vs. L allele) associated with greater reactivity to stress. Biological marker of greater sensitivity to environment.
94
Discipline is effective if ________ & _________. Ideally, discipline leads to _________
(1) child stops engaging in inappropriate behaviour
(2) engages in appropriate behaviour instead.
internalization
95
What's the best way to foster internalization?
Reasoning that focuses on the effects of a behaviour on someone else combined with psychological pressure
96
Reasoning has to be combined with _____________ to foster internalization.
psychological pressure
97
What are the two dimensions of Parenting styles?
Discipline/control & Sensitivity/support/warmth
98
What do research tell us about the parenting of moms vs dads?
Confirms general stereotypes.
Moms: Spend on average, even those that work, 1.5 hours more with their children than dads + More likely to provide physical care and emotional support to children.
Dads: More likely to play with children
99
Effects of Uninvolved Parenting on Kids (5)
(1) Struggle with self-worth and mental health problems
(2) Insecure attachment
(3) Low in social competence
(4) Low academic achievement
(5) More behavioural problems
100
Effect of Permissive Parenting on Kids (3)
(1) Higher in impulsivity
(2) Low academic achievement
(3) More behavioural problems, like delinquency and aggression
101
What does research tell us about the consequences of European American vs Chinese parenting? (3)
(1) Chinese/Chinese American parents are more likely to use authoritarian parenting style.
(2) Authoritarian parenting has fewer negative consequences for Chinese/Chinese American children. Because this is the norm = less negative outcomes - even when growing up in America.
(3) Positive association between authoritative parenting and positive outcomes in children for both European Americans and Chinese children but this association is weaker for Chinese children.
102
The only way of definitively showing bidirectional relationship between children's behaviour and parenting practices is ________
Longitudinal Research
103
Study: Followed families for 4 years to examine effect of timing of divorce on children's outcomes. (children younger or older when divorce). What were the measured variables? (3)
(1) Internalizing symptoms: depression and anxiety
(2) Externalizing symptoms: aggression, disobedience, impulsivity
(3) Academic performance
104
Negative sibling relationships predict: _____ (3)
(1) More depression
(2) More social withdrawal
(3) More problem behaviors
105
Differential treatment less detrimental if the least favoured child: ____ (3)
(1) Views it as justified
(2) Is older sibling
(3) Growing up in a collectivistic culture
106
We can talk about the definition of the self in two ways. What are they?
Implicit self vs Self concept
107
Gender Socialization def
Process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and wider society.
E.g. Parents of day-old infants describe new born girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boys.
108
Baby X studies results (2)
(1) Infants labelled as "boys" rated as bigger, stronger, louder and more likely to be encouraged to be active.
(2) Infants labelled as "girls" received more talk and nurturance.
109
Subtle Gender Socialization: Play (2)
(1) Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls.
(2) More likely to offer girls more help.
110
Subtle Gender Socialization: Language differences (2)
(1) Parents are more likely to use emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood.
(2) Emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls.
111
Implications of Gender Identity (3)
(1) Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children's self-concepts.
(2) Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children's development in many domains
(3) Extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with level of peer acceptance.
112
_____________________________________________________ is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced.
Greater engagement with peers of same gender
113
Changes in self-concept from early childhood due to: (2)
(1) Increased cognitive ability to use higher-order concepts and to think about multiple qualities simultaneously.
(2) Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others.
114
Explain Egocentrism in Adolescents (2)
(1) Assume that their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are. E.g. "You don't understand me!"
(2) Imaginary audience: belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behavior.
115
Potential problems caused by foreclosure (2)
(1) Committed to an identity that is not a good fit for their authentic self
(2) Commitment is less strong
116
Criticisms of Marcia's Identity Status Theory (2)
(1) Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples. Progression & outcome may differ in non WEIRD societies
(2) Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence. Life events in adulthood can restart the process (e.g., losing a job).
117
Most important factors in children's friendships (2)
(1) Similarity: Age, acceptance by peers, personality, level of negative emotions, academic motivation...
(2) Proximity: same neighborhood/school...
118
As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship. (2)
(1) Desire more closeness and dependency in friendships
(2) But comes with more worrying and stress about friendships
119
Popular Kids (__%).
11% of kids. Liked by many and disliked by few.
120
Rejected Kids (__%). + Aggressive vs Withdrawn
13% of kids. Liked by few and disliked by many.
-> Rejected-aggressive (40-50%)
-> Rejected-withdrawn (10-25%)
121
Controversial Kids (__%).
7% of kids.
122
Neglected Kids (__%).
9% of kids.
123
Stability of Sociometric Status: Short term (2)
(1) Neglected or controversial children are likely to change status.
(2) Popular, rejected, and average children tend to remain so.
124
Stability of Sociometric Status: Long term (2)
(1) Sociometric status more likely to change
(2) Average and rejected status most stable
125
Avoidance at age 18 predicted by: (in order - 4)
(1) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.39)
(2) Best friendship quality (-0.30)
(3) Lower maternal sensitivity (-0.20)
(4) Higher maternal depression (0.14)
126
Anxiety at age 18 predicted by: (in order - 3)
(1) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.23)
(2) Higher maternal depression (0.17)
(3) Best friendship quality (-0.15)
127
Parents can shape their children's peer relationships in a positive way using two strategies: ____
(1) Monitoring
(2) Emotion coaching
128
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) is for kids aged ______. Aim to ______________________________.
4-11yo, how rejected children interact with peers
129
In this program (PATHS), children learn (3)
(1) To identify emotional expressions
(2) Think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expressing emotions
(3) Strategies for self-regulation
130
[moral dev] Piaget was the first to say that ____________________ (2)
(1) Moral judgment relies on cognitive development.
(2) Increasingly able to take intentions into account as they get older.
131
Piaget: Children pass through 3 qualitatively different stages of moral development. What are the characteristics of those stages? (2)
(1) All thinking about right and wrong is determined by stage
(2) Order is fixed
132
Social Domain Theory of Moral Development
As they age, children are simultaneously developing knowledge about moral, societal, and personal domains.
133
Social Domains (3)
Moral, Societal, Personal domains
134
However, children struggle to make moral judgments in _____________. Give an example.
complex situations
=> especially those involving in group identity (societal domain).
E.g. Treat strangers equally but show preference for same gender peers in resource allocation.
135
Explain the trajectory of how prosocial behavior happens
Perspective taking => Empathy => Sympathy => Prosocial behavior
136
Toddlers help selectively depending on: (2)
(1) How trustworthy, friendly, and helpful the other person is.
(2) The type of help required: struggle to engage in helping that requires self-sacrifice.
137
Prosocial behaviour continues to increase throughout childhood, particularly emotional helping and self-sacrifice. Why? (2)
(1) More sophisticated moral reasoning
(2) Improved perspective taking ability.
138
What are some evidences of a genetic basis of prosocial behavior? (2)
(1) Identical twins are more similar in their level of prosocial behaviour than fraternal twins.
(2) Differences in temperament.
139
What's a gene that can be implied in individual differences in prosocial behavior?
Oxytocin gene.
Oxytocin: neuro-hormone involved in social bonding and childbirth.
140
In temperament, there are 2 aspects that help individuals to act in a prosocial manner: what are they?
(1) Emotion regulation: Ability to experience emotion without getting overwhelmed by it is associated with empathy. Better emotion regulation = more help
(2) Behavioural inhibition (Shyness): High level of shyness = less likely to help.
141
In what ways socialization by parents influence prosocial behavior? (2)
(1) Modelling of prosocial behaviour and teaching prosocial values. Children similar to parents.
(2) Providing opportunities for child to engage in prosocial behaviour (e.g. household chores, community service hours..)
