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Biochem Anderson Flashcards

1
Q

Fatty acids, glucose, and amino acids all have this common intermediate

A

Acetyl S~Co-A aka the TCA/Krebs/Citric Acid Cycle

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2
Q

Monosaccharides

A

glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose…cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler CHO’s, two forms are pyranose and furanose

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3
Q

carbons in a pentose sugar

A

5

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4
Q

carbons in a hexose sugar

A

6

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5
Q

makeup of a pyranose

A

ring of 5 carbons with 1 oxygen (ex glucose)

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6
Q

makeup of a furanose

A

ring of 4 carbons with 1 oxygen (ex fructose)

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7
Q

anomeric carbon

A

carbon atom that has 4 different ligands (C1 in ring form of sugars)

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8
Q

epimers

A

isomers that differ in only one carbon (ex glucose and galactose)

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9
Q

enantiomers

A

mirror image

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10
Q

reducing sugars

A

C1 oxygen is available for redox…glucose, galactose and fructose are reducing sugars and sucrose is a non-reducing sugar

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11
Q

cataracts could be from a failure to metabolize

A

D-galactose (galactosemia)

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12
Q

physiologic important disaccharides

A

sucrose, maltose, lactose…linked by glycosidic linkages

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13
Q

composition and bond of maltose

A

glucose + glucose, alpha 1-4 bond

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14
Q

composition and bond of lactose

A

galactose + glucose, beta 1-4 bond (lactase specific)

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15
Q

composition and bond of sugar

A

glucose + fructose, alpha 1 - beta 2 bond

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16
Q

bonds of glycogen

A

alpha 1-4 (chains), alpha 1-6 (branch)

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17
Q

bond of glucose

A

beta 1-4…cannot be hydrolyzed by humans

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18
Q

example of an unbranched polysaccharides

A

amylose (15-20% starch)

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19
Q

example of branched polysaccharide

A

amylopectin (80-85% starch)…glycogen is even more branched

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20
Q

inulin hydrolyzes to

A

fructose

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21
Q

what breaks down all polysaccharieds to monos

A

brush border enzymes

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22
Q

how are the monosaccharides absorbed

A

glucose and galactose via Na cotransporters, fructose via facilitated diffusion

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23
Q

What happens in the mitochondria?

A

krebs, fatty acid oxidation, formation of acetyl CoA, part of urea cycle, part of gluconeogenesis

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24
Q

what happens in the golgi apparatus

A

synthesis and packaging of complex molecules including glycolipids, glycoproteins, and lipoproteins

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25
Q

what happens in the cytosol

A

glycolysis, HMP shunt, protein synthesis, fatty acid synthesis, part of urea cycle, part of glucoeogensis

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26
Q

what do lysosomes do?

A

degradation of complex macromolecules

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27
Q

what happens in the nucleus

A

DNA and RNA synthesis

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28
Q

Only tissue all processes of TCA cycle occur in to any significant extend

A

Liver

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29
Q

ATP produced from a glucose molecule

A

36-38, most being produced from electron transport system/ox phos

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30
Q

Outline of TCA cycle

A

Citrate (C6) losing 2 CO2s and becomes Oxaloacetate (C4) which combines with Acetyl-CoA (C2) to form Citrate (C6) again.

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31
Q

B1

A

thiamin aka thiamin diphosphate (alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase reaction)

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32
Q

B2

A

riboflavin aka FAD

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33
Q

B3

A

niacin aka NAD

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34
Q

B5

A

pantothenic acid which is a part of Coenzyme A

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35
Q

electron transport chain/ox phos happens in the

A

mitochondria…enzymatically catalyzed reactions

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36
Q

What is ox phos?

A

addition of P to ADP to get ATP

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37
Q

primary rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis

A

Phosphofructokinase

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38
Q

aerobic glycolysis ends at

A

pyruvate, producing 2 net ATP

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39
Q

anaerobic glycolysis ends at

A

lactate, producing less energy per unit glucose but net 2 ATP (only ATP produced under anaerobic conditions)

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40
Q

what stimulates and inhibits glycolysis

A

insulin stimulates and ATP inhibits

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41
Q

gluconeogensis is stimulated by

A

ATP/cortisol/epi/glucagon

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42
Q

alanine is from

A

skeletal muscle

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43
Q

lactate is from

A

skeletal muscle and is delivered to liver

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44
Q

substrate for gluconeogenesis

A

glycerol

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45
Q

Tell me about Hexokinase/Glucokinase (same thing)

A

catalyzes glucose to G-6-P, part of glycolysis, uses 1 ATP

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46
Q

Tell me about Phosphofructokinase

A

catalyzes F-6-P to F-1,6-P, part of glycolysis, uses 1 ATP

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47
Q

Tell me about pyruvate/PEP kinase

A

catalyzes PEP to pyruvate, part of glycolysis, creates 2 ATP

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48
Q

2 places ATP is created in glycolysis

A

F-1,6-P to PEP (2 ATP) and PEP to Pyruvate (2 ATP)

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49
Q

Tell me about Pyruvte Dehydrogenase

A

catalyzes Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, part of glycolysis

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50
Q

Tell me about Pyruvate Carboxylase

A

catalyzes pyruvate to oxaloacetate to malate, part of gluconeogenesis

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51
Q

Tell me about Pyruvate Carboxykinase

A

catalyzes oxaloacetate to PEP, part of gluconeogenesis

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52
Q

Tell me about F-1,6 Diphosphatase

A

catalyzes F-1,6-P to F-6-P, part of gluconeogenesis

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53
Q

Tell me about Glucose-6-Phosphatase

A

catalyzes G-6-P to glucose, part of gluconeogenesis

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54
Q

All important enzymes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis occur the cytosol except these two exzymes which occur in the mitochondria

A

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase (glycolysis) and Pyruvate Carboxylase (Gluconeogenesis)

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55
Q

What stimulates gluconeogenesis and what inhibits it

A

epi, glucagon, cortisol stimulate…insulin inhibits

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56
Q

The presence of F-6-P and F-2,6-P negatively feedback on ___ to do what

A

feedback on Fructose-1,6-Diphosphatase to stop gluconeogenesis when the glucose concentration is high enough

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57
Q

What type of unit is muscle glycogen

A

hexose…used for glycolysis within the muscle, rarely depelted except after long/vigorous exercise

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58
Q

liver glycogen is mainly used for

A

blood glucose maintenance mainly b/w meals…12-18 hours fasting will mostly deplete it

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59
Q

where does glycogenesis mainly occur

A

liver and muscle

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60
Q

glucose is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate e by

A

hexokinase in muscle cells or glucokinase in liver cells

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61
Q

whats the major controller of liver glycogen metabolism (glycogenolysis)

A

concentration of phosphorylase-a…controls rate limiting step in glycogenolysis…inhibited by rising glucose…inhibits glycogen synthesis by lowering protein phosphatase-1

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62
Q

glycogen metabolism is regulated by what two things

A

glycogen synthase and phosphorylase

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63
Q

if you have increased cAMP and it activates phosphorylase what process does it lead to

A

glycogenolysis

64
Q

if you inactivate glycogen synthase what does it slow

A

slows glycogenesis

65
Q

what does the Hexose Monophosphate shunt do and where does it occur

A

alternate route for glucose metabolism, no ATP generation, generates NADPH for reductive syntheses (like steroids) and provides ribose residues for nucleotide biosynthesis. Occurs in the cytosol

66
Q

describe the first phase (oxidative phase) or the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt

A

non-reversible, glucose-6-phosphate to ribulose-5-phosphate which uses glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

67
Q

describe the second phase (non-oxidative) of the hexose monophosphate shunt

A

reversible, takes ribulose-5-phosphate back to G-6-P and uses transketolase and transaldolase

68
Q

if you dont recycle glutathione you wont break down

A

peroxide…the HMP shunt is key for this process

69
Q

if fuctose is not used by the muscle and broken down into fructose-6-phospate then it will be

A

converted to sorbitol which is toxic in high amounts

70
Q

galactose is converted to glucose by

A

first being converted to glycogen

71
Q

essential fatty acids

A

linoleic (O-6), linolenic (O-3), and conditionally arachidonic acid (O-6)

72
Q

what do elongases do

A

elongate fatty acid by 2

73
Q

what do desaturases do

A

desaturate at a specific delta point and thus create another number on the second number

74
Q

what do trans fats do to cholesterol

A

increase LDL and lower HDL…also compete for cell membrane sites and aggravate essential fatty acid deficiency

75
Q

major site of cholesterol synthesis is

A

the liver although other tissues are also active

76
Q

where does synthesis of cholesterol occur in the liver

A

cytoplasm

77
Q

carbon atoms in cholesterol are provided by

A

acetate…NADPH provides reducing equivalents

78
Q

rate limiting step of cholesterol synthesis is

A

conversion of HMG CoA to mevalonate by HMG CoA reductase…..inhibited by cholesterol

79
Q

what receptor do chylomicrons use

A

Apo-E

80
Q

what receptor do HDLs use

A

A-1

81
Q

what receptor do LDLs use

A

Apo-B 100

82
Q

HDL trades what for what

A

HDL trades cholesterol away to get triglycerides

83
Q

what does ACAT do

A

takes extra free cholesterol and turns it into a cholesterol ester so it doesn’t oxidize…can be returned to free form by CE hydrolase

84
Q

antioxidant of the RBCs and liver

A

glutathione

85
Q

antioxidant of the plasma

A

vitamin C which recycles vitamin E and glutathione

86
Q

antioxidant of LDL

A

vitamin E

87
Q

eicosanoids are active 20-carbon fatty acids that give rise to

A

prostanoids: prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and lekotrienes

88
Q

what fatty acid makes Series 1 eicosanoids

A

linoleic (O-6)

89
Q

what fatty acid makes Series 2 eicosanoids

A

Arachadonic Acid

90
Q

what fatty acid makes Series 3 eicosanoids

A

Alpha Linolenic Acid (O3)

91
Q

pathway of Series-1 (O-6)

A

non-animal source of fat is turned into GLA by delta-6-desaturase. GLA then goes to DHGL which can either because end series 1 cytokines or can go into Series 2 by being acton on by delta-5-desaturase

92
Q

pathway of Series 2 (arachidonic)

A

animals fats acted on by delta-5-desaturase to become cyclooxygenase or lipoxygenase which go to Series 2 cytokines

93
Q

pathway of series 3 (O-3)

A

flaxseed acted on by delta-6 desaturase to become EPA which goes to DHA which goes to Series 3 cytokines.

94
Q

Which series are pro-inflammatory and which are anti

A

1 and 3 are anti-inflammatory and 2 is pro

95
Q

what can block delta-6-desaturase and thus limit anti-inflammatory cytokines

A

stress hormones, age, cancer

96
Q

what stimulates delta-6-desaturase and thus enables anti-inflammatory cytokines

A

B-6, Mg, Zn

97
Q

what blocks Delta-5 desaturase and thus inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines

A

EPA, DHA, Glucagon

98
Q

what stimulates Delta-5 desaturase and thus enables pro-inflammatory cytokines

A

insulin

99
Q

what enzymes brings arachadonate out from membrane phospholipids

A

phopholipase A2

100
Q

what is phospholipase A2 stimulated and inhibited by

A

stimulated by antiotensin 2, bradykinin, epinephrine, thrombin…inhibited by corticosteroids

101
Q

arachadonate can go to what things from which two pathways

A

can use lipoxygenase to make leukotrienes or use cyclooxygenase to make prostaglandins and thromboxanes

102
Q

what inhibits cyclooxygenase

A

NSAIDs

103
Q

renin for turnings milk to paracasein is active in

A

infants

104
Q

short and medium chain fatty acids absorb directly from stomach into the

A

portal circulation

105
Q

micelle formation is aided by

A

bile

106
Q

what enzyme hydrozlyses cholesteryl esters to free cholesterol

A

cholesterol esterase

107
Q

after the micelle brings lipids to absorptive surface, the lipids diffuse into the intestinal cell and are re-esterified to form chylomicrons, those chylomicrons are then exocytosed into the

A

lymphatics

108
Q

fats are how many Kcal/gram

A

9

109
Q

what enzyme takes HMG-CoA to the pathway that eventually leads to ketones

A

HMG-CoA Lyase

110
Q

ketones are toxic to and cannot be used by the

A

liver even though it produces them

111
Q

what helps fat get into the mitochondria

A

carnintine enzymes

112
Q

carnintine palmitoyl transferase I is on the ___ and CPT II is on the ___

A

CPT I on the outer mitochondrial membrane to bring acyl coa in and CPT II is on the inner membrane to do the same after Carnitine Acyl Transferase (CAT) has removed and recycled the carnitine anchor

113
Q

esterification is

A

formation of TG

114
Q

Beta Oxidation is

A

cleavage of the FA at the carboxyl end to form the 2-C Acetyl CoA mollecule

115
Q

all proteins have a primary structure which has ___ bonds

A

covalent…must have enzyme to break

116
Q

secondary protein structure uses these bonds

A

disulfide bonds

117
Q

tertiary protein structure uses these bonds

A

disulfide

118
Q

quarternary protein structure has subunits bonded by

A

weak forces

119
Q

a protein is considered an amino acid if it is less than

A

10 amino acids in length

120
Q

Pneumonic for the essential amino acids

A

Three Liars, Val, Lucy and Me, Tripped and Fell in His Isolation tank…Threonine, Lysine, Valine, Lecine, Methionine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine, Histidine, Isoleucine, and a rando Arginine

121
Q

K/cal/gram in an amino acid

A

4 Kcal/gram

122
Q

glucogenic type proteins can convert to

A

glucose

123
Q

ketogenic type proteins can convert to

A

Acetyl-CoA and are too late to become glucose

124
Q

dopa, dopamine, NE, epi, T3/T4, and melanin all come from

A

tyrosine

125
Q

serotonin, melatonin, and niacin come from

A

tryptophan

126
Q

GABA comes from

A

glutamate

127
Q

porphyrin, heme, and creatine come from

A

glycine

128
Q

histamine comes from

A

histadine

129
Q

what three peptides make up glutathione

A

Glutamic Acid, Cystein, Glycine

130
Q

proteins are all absorbed by

A

Na dependent cotransport

131
Q

di/tri peptides are hydrolyzed to amino acids by

A

peptidases

132
Q

non-competitive enzymes bind

A

reversibly bind to a non-substrate site

133
Q

competitive enzymes bind

A

at the substrate binding site

134
Q

irreversible enzymes are

A

poison

135
Q

law that governs saturable quality of enzyme reactions and speed estimation

A

Michaelis-Menten and Hill

136
Q

hydrolase

A

adds H2O to break bonds (hydrolysis)

137
Q

Aldolase

A

cleaves C-C bonds to form aldehydes

138
Q

dehydrogenase

A

removes H from substrate

139
Q

Hydratase

A

adds H2O to C-C bonds without breaking the bond and can also remove the H2O to create a double bond

140
Q

esterase

A

hydrolyzes ester linkages to form an alcohol and acid

141
Q

Phase 1 liver detox (CYP450) does what

A

converts fat soluble compounds to water solubles compounds…naturally creates peroxide and superoxide free radicals

142
Q

Phase 2 liver detox does what

A

takes water soluble compounds and does enzymatic conjugation (glycine, glutathione, glucuronic acid) and creates excreted derivatives

143
Q

in liver detox, glycine creates

A

hippurates

144
Q

in liver detox, glutathione creates

A

mercapturates

145
Q

in liver detox, glucuronic acid creates

A

glucuronides

146
Q

insulin is generally

A

anabolic

147
Q

GH promotes synthesis of

A

protein at the expense of fat and sugars

148
Q

Cortisol increases ___ and build up of ___

A

increases blood sugar levels and build up of glycogen stores at the expense of fat and protein

149
Q

key enzyme of lipolysis

A

carnitine acyltransferase (CAT)

150
Q

key enzyme of fat mobilization

A

hormone sensitive lipase

151
Q

key enzyme of lipid synthesis

A

acetyl-CoA carboxylase

152
Q

key enzyme of ketone body synthesis

A

HMG CoA synthase

153
Q

key enzyme of TCA cycle

A

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

154
Q

brain can use

A

glucose or ketones

155
Q

muscles uses

A

fatty acids at rest and glucose during exercise

156
Q

hearts uses

A

anything for energy

157
Q

RBCs use

A

glucose

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