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A level Biology Paper 1- Core concepts > Biological Molecules > Flashcards

Biological Molecules Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 key elements which make up biological molecules and are essential for all living organisms?

A

Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
Nitrogen

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2
Q

What are Inorganic Ions?

A

Play and important part in living organisms
Occur in solution in the cytoplasm and body fluid of organisms in very low amounts.

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3
Q

What are Macronutrients?

A

Inorganic ions needed in small amounts.

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4
Q

What are examples of Macronutrients?

A

Inorganic ions such as- Magnesium, Iron, Phosphate and Calcium

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5
Q

What is the symbol for phospahte?

A

PO4 3-

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6
Q

What is magnesium’s importance?

A

Constituent for chlorophyll and so is essential for photosynthesis. Plants without it in the soil can’t make chlorophyll and so leaves are yellow (chlorosis)

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7
Q

What is magnesium required for?

A

Plant growth and development

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8
Q

What is iron’s importance?

A

A constituent of haemoglobin (which transports oxygen inside rbc’s)
A lack of this can lead to anaemia.

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9
Q

What is phosphate’s importance?

A

Used for making nucleic acids and is also a constituent of phospholipids, found in plasma membranes.

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10
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A

DNA, RNA, ATP

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11
Q

What is Calcium’s importance?

A

Structural component of bones and teeth in mammals and also a component of plant cell walls, providing strength

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12
Q

What does inorganic mean?

A

Compounds that don’t contain carbon bonded to hydrogen e.g. water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas

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13
Q

What are Micronutrients?

A

Inorganic nutrients needed in minute (trace) amounts e.g copper and zinc

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14
Q

What is a molecule?

A

Two or more atoms joined together(these atoms can be the same or different)

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15
Q

What is an organic compound?

A

Compounds that are based on carbon and contain carbon bonded to hydrogen e.g. carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

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16
Q

What can Carbohydrates and proteins form?

A

Very large polymers

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17
Q

What is polymerisation?

A

The linking of identical monomers to form larger molecules called polymers

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18
Q

What happens when 2 monomers link together and what is this reaction called?

A

Water is eliminated- condensation reaction

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19
Q

How can a condensation reaction be reversed?

A

By the chemical insertion of water to the polymer- hydrolysis reaction

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20
Q

What are carboHydrates?

A

Long chain units of sugar called saccharides.

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21
Q

What are the main functions of carbohydrates?

A

Storage and release of energy
Cellular Structures e.g. the cellulose walls of plant cells

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22
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

small organic molecules (monomers) used as building blocks of complex carbohydrates

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23
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

two monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds during a condensation reaction.

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24
Q

What’s are polysaccharides?

A

Large complex carbohydrates formed from very large numbers of monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds.

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25
Q

What is the general formula for Monosaccharides?

A

Cn(H2O)n

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26
Q

What is a glyceraldehyde?

A

A triose used in metabolic reactions.

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27
Q

What is the most abundant monosaccharide?

A

Glucose

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28
Q

What is another feature of monosaccharides?

A

They have varying number of carbon atoms, for instance: ribose

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29
Q

What is ribose?

A

A pentose sugar ( a component of nucleic acid).

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30
Q

What is Glucose?

A

A monosaccharide containing 6 carbon atoms in each molecule, it has 2 isomers- alpha and beta glucose

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31
Q

Why is glucose of great importance?

A

It is the main substrate for respiration.

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32
Q

ABBA?

A

Alpha below, beta above

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33
Q

What are isomers?

A

Molecules with the same chemical formula (C6 H12 O6) but different arrangements of their atoms

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34
Q

What is the difference between Alpha and beta?

A

In alpha glucose the OH group in C1 points down and the H atom points up. In beta glucose the OH group on C1 points up and the H atom on C1 points down.

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35
Q

What are other examples of hexose monosaccharides?

A

Fructose and galactose.

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36
Q

Why are Fructose and Galactose isomers?

A

They have the chemical formula C6 H12 06 but have different arrangements of their atoms.

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37
Q

What are the features of glucose?

A

Small and therefore soluble in water
and easily transported in the bloodstream of animals phloem plants.

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38
Q

What are the functions of monosaccharides?

A

Source of energy in respiration
Building blocks for larger molecules
Intermediates in reactions
Constituent of nucleotides

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39
Q

What are the three classes of carbohydrates?

A

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

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40
Q

What are examples of monosaccharides?

A

glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Glyceraldehyde triose sugar

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41
Q

What are some other types of monosaccharides of biological importance?

A

Pentose sugars(e.g. deoxyribose sugar found in DNA nucleotides) and triose sugars that are intermediates in respiration and photosynthesis

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42
Q

what are the properties of monosaccharides?

A

small so all soluble in water and therefore can easily dissolve inside the cell and they are easily transported in the blood stream of animals

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43
Q

What are the names of the disaccharides?

A

Either alpha or beta

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44
Q

What is the general formula for disaccharides?

A

C12 H22 O11

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45
Q

how are disaccharides formed?

A

When 2 hexose sugars is combine into condensation reaction (where a new glycosidic bond is formed with the elimination of water)

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46
Q

What are examples of disaccharides?

A

maltose- a + b glucose
Sucrose (alpha)- glucose +fructose
Lactose (beta)- glucose + galactose

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47
Q

What is maltose?

A

Found in seeds and is an important source of glucose during germination

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48
Q

what is sucrose?

A

transported through the phloem of all plants

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49
Q

What is lactose?

A

It is found in mammalian milk and is an important source of energy for their young

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50
Q

What is hydrolysis reaction used to do?

A

break down disaccharides into their respective monomers

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51
Q

what is the general formula of maltose, sucrose, lactose?

A

CH2 OH

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52
Q

why is the bond between the two sugars called a 1-4 glycosidic bond?

A

The bond is between carbon 1 of one monosaccharide and carbon 4 of the second monosaccharide

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53
Q

how are polysaccharides formed?

A

The monomers, which are monosaccharides (such as glucose) are linked together, by glycosidic bonds formed by a series of condensation reactions

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54
Q

what is the smallest polysaccharide made up of?

A

three Monosaccharide monomers are linked together

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55
Q

Why are polysaccharides insoluble?

A

They are usually made up of thousands of monomers, which gives them a large size

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56
Q

What are the two types of functions that polysaccharides usually have?

A

structural, or storage

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57
Q

what is glucose’s function in the body?

A

glucose id the main source of energy in cells and must be stored in an appropriate form

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58
Q

why is glucose converted into a storage polysaccharide like starch and glycogen?

A

glucose is soluble in water, and this would affect osmosis within the cell

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59
Q

What are shared functions of starch and glycogen?

A

-Insoluble, so don’t affect
-Compact so can be stored in a small place in the cell
-Easily hydrolysed to release to glucose for respiration

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60
Q

What are examples of polysaccharides?

A

starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
chitin

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61
Q

what is starch?

A

 Glucose energy storage polysaccharide in plant cells made up of two different molecules- amylopectin and amylose.

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62
Q

What is the starch polymer made up of?

A

Thousands of Alpha glucose monomers

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63
Q

what is the structure of amylose?

A

straight chained, helical polymer, containing alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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64
Q

why can amylose store a lot of energy?

A

it is coiled, so it is a very compact molecule

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65
Q

What is the structure of amylopectin?

A

Branched polymer containing alpha 1-4 and alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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66
Q

how is energy released quickly by amylopectin?

A

It is rapidly digested by enzymes due to presence of many side branches

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67
Q

what is glycogen?

A

an animal, glucose energy storage polysaccharide found inside liver and muscle cells made up of many alpha glucose molecules

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68
Q

Why is glycogen being highly branched important?

A

this allows the quick release of glucose(energy) from the end of the branches to be used in respiration

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69
Q

what type of bonds does glycogen have?

A

1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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70
Q

what does glycogen being large but compact mean?

A

maximises the amount of energy it can store

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71
Q

what is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth?

A

Cellulose

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72
Q

what is cellulose?

A

 A polysaccharide made up of beta glucose monomers

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73
Q

why is cellulose important in plants?

A

it is important as a structural carbohydrate, and it is the most important component in the plant cell wall

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74
Q

what is the structure of Cellulose?

A

consists of long, parallel chains of beta glucose molecules joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds

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75
Q

what type of bonds between the straight chains in Cellulose?

A

Hydrogen bonds

76
Q

What are the functions of cellulose?

A

give the plant rigidity because of the cellulose cell wall is inelastic and has a high tensile strength to prevent the plant cells bursting

77
Q

what is cellulose is structure?

A

-Beta glucose monomers joined by glycosidic bonds with each adjacent beta glucose molecule rotated at 180° to each other
-Forming straight chains
-Many straight chains joined together by many hydrogen bonds forms a strong microfibril
-Many microfibrils form a strong Celulose bundle

78
Q

what contributes to Celulose’s structural stability?

A

each beta glucose molecule is rotated 180° to each other

79
Q

How does cellulose form a helix structure?

A

rotates

80
Q

how are microfibrils formed?

A

Between 60 and 70 cellulose molecules, molecules become tightly, cross-linked, and hydrogen bonds form between them

81
Q

what is chitin’s structure?

A

similar structure to Celulose but differs in that some of the OH groups of each of the beta glucose molecules are replaced by nitrogen containing acetylamine groups

82
Q

What is chitin made up of?

A

B glucose monomers with amino acid side chains( contains amino acid groups)

83
Q

what does the additions of chitins structure make?

A

they make chitin a muco-polysaccharide

84
Q

what are the functions of chitin?

A

-forms that exoskeleton of arthropods, such as insects(bees), arachnids(spiders) and crustaceans (e.g crabs
-Also forms the cell wall of fungi

85
Q

what are the properties of chitin?

A

light weight
Waterproof
Strong
Insoluble
b(1-4) bonds

86
Q

What do 2 things are lipids?

A

Triglycerides and phospholipids

87
Q

What are lipids made from?

A

The same element as carbohydrates but lipids contain proportionally less oxygen than carbon hydrates

88
Q

what are triglycerides made up of?

A

Two main components glycerol and fatty acids

89
Q

why are triglycerides not polymers?

A

-they are made up of two different types of subunit (glycerol and fatty acids) which have different structures
-Triglycerides are not made from identical monomers

90
Q

What is glycerol?

A

And alcohol with the formula C3H8O3

91
Q

what is the structure of glycerol?

A

-Contains three carbon teach linked to a hydroxyl group (COH)

92
Q

what are the properties of glycerol ?

A
  • dissolves in water
    -Hydrophilic molecule
93
Q

what is glycerol constant in?

A

all triglycerides and phospholipids molecules we study

94
Q

what is the general formula for fatty acids?

A

CH3 (CH2)n COOH

95
Q

why can the specific fatty acid only undergo one condensation reaction?

A

Only one OH group

96
Q

How many types of fatty acids are there?

A

There are several types of fatty acids

97
Q

what determines the name of the fatty acid and proteins given?

A

(CH2)n

98
Q

what is n (in glycerol) often a number between?

A

14 and 22

99
Q

what are fatty acids made up of?

A
  • three parts
    a methyl group (CH3), a long hydrocarbon chain (CH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH) (constant)
100
Q

how does one fatty acid differ from another?

A

By the length of the hydrocarbon chain( the ‘n’ is the number of CH2 units in the hydrocarbon chain; the higher the number the longer the fatty acid chain)

101
Q

what is the variation in lipid structure due to?

A

How many different types of fatty acid?

102
Q

What is the name given to a lipid affected by?

A

The name of the fatty acid

103
Q

what are the properties of lipids?

A

insoluble and immiscible in water, but dissolve in other compounds e.g. ethanol (soluble in these organic solvents)

104
Q

What is the test for lipids?

A

Ethanol( lipids dissolved in at an added to water, and shaken- white cloudy emulsion forms)

105
Q

how are lipids formed?

A

By condensation reactions between one glycerol and 3 fatty acids

106
Q

how do lipids differ from carbohydrates?

A

A portion of oxygen is much less in lipids

107
Q

Why are lipids not polymers?

A

No formed from identical repeating monomers

108
Q

why why can lipids only undergo three condensation reactions?

A

Because there are only three hydroxide molecules

109
Q

what is the variation in lipid structure due to?

A

The many different types of fatty acid

110
Q

What can saturated triglycerides do to the body?

A

increase cholesterol levels in the blood, which increases the risk of heart disease

111
Q

What type of fatty acid do saturated triglycerides contain?

A

Saturated fatty acids

112
Q

What are features of saturated fatty acids?

A

-hydrocarbon chain in saturated fatty acids contain no carbon to carbon double bonds
-has a straight hydrocarbon chain

113
Q

why are saturated fatty acids called saturated?

A

has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bound to the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain

114
Q

Why are unsaturated fatty acids, healthy?

A

they provide essentials

115
Q

what are the features of unsaturated fatty acids?

A

-One or more carbon to carbon double bond in the hydrocarbon chain meaning that the hydrocarbon change does not contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms(unsaturated)

116
Q

why are saturated fats, which don’t contain any double bonds solid at room temperature?

A

The greater the number of unsaturated bonds, the weaker, the intermolecular bonds resulting in the lower melting point

117
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

1 glycerol molecule combines with three fatty acid molecules and each fatty acid is linked to the glycerol by an ester bond

118
Q

How many ester bonds will one triglyceride have in total?

A

Three

119
Q

What do many types of fatty acids vary in?

A

chain length, presence and number of double bonds

120
Q

what do low-density lipoproteins contain and transport and do? (bad cholesterol)

A

-saturated fats and cause harm
-fatty materials can block major arteries (plaque) and cause a heart attack.

121
Q

what do you high-density lipoproteins do (good cholesterol)

A

-contain and transport unsaturated fats and carry harmful fats away to the liver for disposal
-A higher proportion of HDL in the blood lower, the risk of heart disease

122
Q

what are house implications that a high intake of fat can cause?

A

Atherosclerosis
Aneurysm
Myocardial infraction

123
Q

how are lipids used as an energy storage in seeds and animals?

A

Because they release a lot more energy than carbohydrates, when used as alternative respiratory substrate

124
Q

how do lipids protect vital organs?

A

they are used as shock absorption and so prevent physical damage to internal organs (fats are laid down round delicate organs, and the fat that acts as cushion)

125
Q

how can the lipids be used as thermal insulation?

A

Fat is stored in special connective tissue under the skin of animals e.g. The blubber in whales seals and polar bears is the leopard that reduces heat loss

126
Q

how can lipids be used for buoyancy?

A

As lipids are less dense than water, they float and so have a role in maintaining buoyancy, an organisms such as fish

127
Q

How can lipids produce metabolic water?

A

when they are oxidised by respiration
This is important in desert animal, such as the camel his hump is made of fat

128
Q

How are lipids used waterproofing?

A

-what is a hydrophobic in cover the eco-skeleton of insects in the cuticle of plant leaves
-Both provide the waterproofing property and reduce water loss

129
Q

How are phospholipids and triglycerides different?

A

-phospholipids have a glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group
-triglycerides also have more carbons

130
Q

where are phospholipids usually found?

A

On the cell membrane of an organism

131
Q

What hydro are the fatty acid tails?

A

Hydrophobic

132
Q

what hydro is the polar head group?

A

Hydrophilic

133
Q

What does the phospholipid control?

A

The intake and outtake of water

134
Q

Why are phospholipids an important component of?

A

Cell membranes

135
Q

What are amino acids?

A

The monomers from which proteins are made

136
Q

What elements do amino acids contain in addition to carbon hydrogen and oxygen?

A

nitrogen and sulphur is found in some amino acids, such as cysteine

137
Q

what are the three functional groups of amino acids?

A

Amine
R group
carboxylic

138
Q

What are amino acids joined by?

A

Peptide bonds formed in condensation reactions

139
Q

What does the R group do?

A

changes properties/functions and changes the name

140
Q

How many different variable groups are there?

A

20 e.g. glycine and serine

141
Q

what is the general formula for amino acids?

A

R, NH2 CH OOH

142
Q

what are naturally occurring amino acids?

A

lacine
alanine
glutamic acid
glycine
histidine

143
Q

what is the structure of proteins the determined by?

A

The order number of amino acids in a protein

144
Q

How are dipeptides formed?

A

Two amino acids combined in a condensation reaction

145
Q

where does an ionic bond occur?

A

between oppositely charged r groups

146
Q

where do hydrogen bonds occur?

A

Between some hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a polypeptide chain

147
Q

Where do you disulphide bonds form between?

A

r groups which contain sulphur bonds these bonds are very strong

148
Q

what are the properties of proteins?

A

-Crystalline
-Colourless
-Amphoteric and so can act as buffers

149
Q

what does amphoteric mean?

A

Can be defined as having characteristics of an acid and base and are capable of reacting chemically as either in acid or base

150
Q

What are the monomers of polypeptides?

A

Amino acids

151
Q

What do polypeptides form?

A

Proteins

152
Q

What structure do protein sometimes have?

A

Tertiary structure

153
Q

what structure do proteins occasionally have?

A

Quaternary structure

154
Q

What does the primary structure (only involves peptide bonds) of a polypeptide refer to?

A

The number of the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

155
Q

Why do proteins differ from each other?

A

because of their constituent amino acids

156
Q

How is the secondary structure formed?

A

The primary structure of the polypeptide can coil to form either an alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet

157
Q

what is the most common type of secondary structure?

A

Alpha helix held in a spiral shape by hydrogen bonds

158
Q

What is the shape of an alpha helix determined by?

A

The type of bonding present

159
Q

What types of proteins are secondary structure?

A

Fibrous proteins

160
Q

What do some fibrous proteins have?

A

alpha helices is linked into rope strands e.g. keratin and collagen

161
Q

Where is keratin found?

A

hair and nails

162
Q

where is collagen found?

A

connective tissue and the skin

163
Q

what is the less commonly secondary structure (also stabilised by hydrogen bonds)?

A

The beta pleated sheet which is a flat, zigzag structure e.g the protein silk

164
Q

can both a helices and beta pleated sheets be present in the same protein?

A

yes

165
Q

how is the tertiary structure formed?

A

By bending and twisting of the polypeptide helix into a more compact 3-D structure

166
Q

What are proteins are tertiary structure?

A

fibrous or globular(enzymes, hormones, plasma and cell membrane proteins)

167
Q

what bonds are the tertiary structure, shape maintained by?

A

Disulphide bridges
Ionic bonds
Hydrogen bond
(these form globular proteins)

168
Q

how does the secondary structure become the tertiary structure?

A

-secondary structure is folded and held in a specific 3-D shape by bonds or interactions that form r groups of some of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain

169
Q

what can fibrous proteins such as keratin be used to form? (they are long)

A

fibres

170
Q

why is collagen fibres protein of great strength?

A

-due to the presence of both hydrogen and covalent bonds
-Collagen, molecules are wraparound each other to form fibrils, which forms strong collagen fibres

171
Q

what does collagen form the structure of?

A

-bones
-cartilage
-connective tissue -is a main connective component of tendons, which connects muscles to bones

172
Q

where are hydrophobic r group interactions?

A

on the inside or the proteins

173
Q

Where are hydrophilic r groups found?

A

On the outside of the protein

174
Q

When does the quaternary structure occur

A

where more than one type of polypeptide chain, each with a tertiary structure, combine to form a protein complex

175
Q

How is the quaternary structure formed?

A

The tertiary structures are joined together by bonds, similar to those within the tertiary structures themselves

176
Q

What bands are found in the tertiary structures?

A

ionic
Hydrogen
Disulphide
Hydrophobic interactions

177
Q

What are quaternary protein sometimes associated with?

A

non-protein groups called prosthetic groups

178
Q

What is an example of a quaternary structure of protein?

A

haemoglobin (a protein that carries oxygen in blood)

179
Q

what is haemoglobin made of?

A

four polypeptide chains each with a tertiary structure.

180
Q

what non-protein components does haemoglobin have?

A

haem groups, contain iron (Fe2+)

181
Q

how are proteins classified?

A

According to their structure

182
Q

What type of functions do fibrous proteins carry out?

A

Structural functions

183
Q

What are the properties of fibrous proteins?

A

tough
Non-specific
Insoluble

184
Q

What are the tertiary globular proteins?

A

Enzymes
Antibodies
plasma
Hormones

185
Q

What are globular proteins that are quaternary proteins ?

A

haemoglobin
Antibodies

186
Q

What are the properties of globular proteins?

A

-compact and folded into spherical molecules
-have a specific shape
-Soluble in water

187
Q

why do globular proteins have a spherical shape?

A

caused by tightly folded, polypeptide chains (tertiary structure)

A level Biology Paper 1- Core concepts (5 decks)

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