Biology Flashcards
(594 cards)
1
Q
What is a Monotreme?
A
Mammal that lays eggs
2
Q
Where is Na+ located more?
A
Inside the cell while K+ is more outside the cell
3
Q
What is Ouabin?
A
Inhibit ATP for Na+K pump
4
Q
What does vasocostricion do to affect arterioles/
A
decreases rate of filtration and blood flow
5
Q
What does vasoconstricion do to efferent arterioles?
A
Increase rate of filtration and blood flow
6
Q
What do sympathetic innervation do to afferent arterioles?
A
Decrease urine
7
Q
What do steriod hormones bind?
A
To nuclear receptor NOT on cell surface receptors example estrogen, testosterone, progesterone
8
Q
What is Angiosperm?
A
Plant that has flowers and produces seed with in carpel
Can double fertilize
Endosperm give nutrients to embryo
Example: fruit, oaks, maple
9
Q
Where does glycolysis happen?
A
EVERYWHERE
10
Q
What do heptic veins do?
A
take blood from the liver to the heart and empty into interlobular vena cava
11
Q
What does the hepatic artery do?
A
Takes the blood from the heart to the liver
12
Q
What is convergent evolution?
A
2 different species with different ancestors evolve with the same physical features
13
Q
What is Habitit selection?
A
Behavioral responses that use the habitat as influence on survival and fitness
14
Q
What is Adaptive Radiation?
A
of lineages from single species
species may diverge
adaptation minimize competition\
speciation
15
Q
What is divergent?
A
1 species that diverges 2 differ ways
16
Q
What is Hyperidoma?
A
Lymphocytes + myeloma
can produce desired antibody
17
Q
What happens in the 1st trimester?
A
Major organs develop
most sensitive to drugs and radiation
organs growing rapidly
18
Q
When is something called a fetus?
A
at 8 weeks
19
Q
What happens in the 2nd and 3rd trimester?
A
2nd: can see pregnancy and fetus very active
3rd final growing really just chilling
20
Q
What are the various types of WBC?
A
Neurophili(60%), lympphctes(30%), monocytes, basophils, and eosinphilis
21
Q
What is in the lymph tissue?
A
H2O, proteins, salts, sugars, urea
22
Q
What does the lymphatic system do?
A
Takes interstitial fluid to blood, absorbs fats and fat soluble vitamins, gives defense against microorganisms
23
Q
What do lymph nodes do?
A
filter invaders
*spleen has lymphocytes
24
Q
Apoptosis
A
cell death
25
Hyperasia
enlargement of organ/tissue once rate cells reproduce- early stages of cancer
26
Cell Cell Fusion
uninuculear to multinuclear cell
can help differentiate
keep cell with specific function through organism life
27
Atrophy
wasting part of body way
| degrading muscle
28
Aplasia
When organ or tissue does not develop normal functions
29
Catabolism
break down of nutrients to provide energy
30
Anabolism
make biomolecule from similar compounds
31
Catalysis
accelerate chemical reactions
32
Vegetal Pole
where yolk is concentrated in egg in female
33
Animal Pole
Least amount of yolk
34
What do ectodermal cells do?
They elongate and make a mural plat that becomes the brain and spinal cord
35
Gray Crescent
makes body axis; opposite side of where the sperm penetrates
36
What is Somite
Segmented block of tissue form om either side of notochord
| Help form muscles of axial skeleton
37
What is cleavage after federalization?
serious of mitotic cell divisions
| embryo does not increases in size
38
What is parthenogenis
Asxeual reporduction
| Virgin Mary birth- offspring develops form unfertilized egg
39
Gasturaltion
Makes the ectoderm, encoderm, and mesoderm
40
What does the ectoderm make from gasturlation?
Hair, nails, skiing of nose, mouth, and butt. Lens of eye, retina, nervous system
41
What does the endoderm make form gasturlation?
Lining of disgetive and respiratory tract, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder lining
42
What does the mesoderm maker from gastrulation
Musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissue, portions of digestive and respirator organs
43
Hypertorphy
Enlarge organ/tissue by increase cell size
44
Gymnosperms
Spruce, fir tress, pine
45
Divisions of Angiosperms
Monocot- parellel veins
| Dicot- netlike veins
46
Gamotophye
Haploid mutlicelled stage
47
Sporophyte
Dipolid multi celled stage
48
What are the 2 branches of the immune system?
Humoral and cell mediated
49
What is humoral immune system?
Makes antibodies are produced by B cells, combat viruses and bacteria, circulates antibodies
50
What is cell mediated immune system?
Combat fungal and viral infections, use t cells(defends against intracellular pathogen), pathogen invade bodies
51
What is diapedesis?
WBC adhere to and pass through endothelium blood vessels, WBC become apart of intersitutal fluid
52
What hormones are released by injured tissue?
Histamine and postagladins
53
Where does lipid synthesis?
Smooth ER
54
What synthesizes ribosomes?
Nucleolus
55
What are desmosomes?
In all animal tissue especially skin
56
What are tight junctions?
closest contact bw cells, in a typical region around cell circumference, interface bw cavity or lumen
57
What are gap junctions?
Usisually in heart, brain(neurotransmitter), birth, intercellular channels in plasma, small cells can diffuse and go through cytoplasm
58
What are adherents junction?
Cardic cells, epitheal cells, intercellular adhesion, from cadherins/catenines
59
What is the glomerfular filtrate?
mostly H2O
| contains: blood plasma, sugar, urea, amino acids, and ions
60
What does an increase of BP do to the bowman capsule?
More stuff is forced into capillaries and forces things in to bowman capsule
61
What is the first step of urine formation?
filtration
| passive filtartion glomerous to bowmen capsule
62
What is the second step of urine formation?
secreation
| secrete by particular capillararies to nephron tuble
63
What is the third step of urine formation?
Reabsorption
| essentials & sugars are reabsorbed and returned to blood
64
What is trisomny?
3 copies instead of 2 for chromosomes
| Edwards(Chromo 18), Down(21) Kliefelter
65
What is monsomy?
single copy of chromosomes
| Turer
66
What are the two type of hormones?
Steroid and non steroidal
67
What are steroid hormones?
They are lipid soluble from cholesteral
68
What are non steroidal hormones?
Made of amino acids, dissolve in H2O
| nonepinerpherene and epinepherine
69
What is lumen?
Space in tube
70
What are sphincters?
rings of muscles usally
71
What are submucosa
connective tissue blood/lymph
72
What is Amylase
Enzyme made by pancreas and salivary gland
| breaks down carbs
73
What does the large intestine do?
Take stuff to fecal matter and absorb vitamins and H2O
74
What can candium develop?
xylem or phelom
75
What is xylem?
tissue that transport H2O and minerals up the stem
76
What is phelom?
Transport down the stem?
77
What are prpherial proteins?
Bound to charge polar head
| mild salts that can remove them
78
What are cell walls made of?
peptidoglycan-polysaccarides and peptide chains
| exam gram + bacteria staining they are purple
79
What kinds of bacteria is blue green algae?
cynobacteria
80
What are teichoic acids?
reconginiton and bindings site for bacterial viruses that can cause infection
ex gram +
81
What does the mylen shelf make?
Schwann cells
| Mylen elctroll insolator in axon signal
82
Where is glucogenisis?
cytosol
83
What is the process for nerve signaling?
presynaptic cell to synaptic cleft to post synaptic cleft
84
What is in the middle ear?
edrumm(tymanic membrane)- vibrate as frequency
| incus, mallesu, stepes- amplify and transport to inner ear
85
What is in the inner ear?
cochlea-sound waves to neural messages; stimulate basilar membrane(action potential)
semicellular canals- balance
86
What hormones does the anterior pituitary gland?
HGH, LH,FSH, TSH & prolactin
87
What hormones does the posterior pituitary gland release?
ADH-vasopressin & oxycotin
| both made by hypothalamus
88
What hormones does the adrenal cortex release?
cortisol & aldosterene(Na+ reabsorbed & K+ secretion in kidney and in crease bp & blood volume
89
What makes glugagon?
pancreatic alpha cells
90
What makes insulin?
made by B cells
91
What increases glucose levels?
glucose and cortisol
92
what decreases insulin levels?
insulin
93
What is parasitism?
one benefits other harmed
94
What is mutralism>
both benefit
95
What is commensilamism?
one benefits other unharmed
96
What are saprophytes?
decomposers any her energy from dead organisms
97
What do the chief stomach cells do?
secrete epesinogen
98
What do the parietal cells of the stomach do?
secrete HCL, intrisic factor, absorb B12
99
What do G cells of the stomach do?
Secrete hormone gastrin. stimulate parietal cells
100
What do Mucous cells of the stomach do?
secret mucose, lubriatae stomach and protect stomach
101
What are cartilaginous fish?
Sharks
102
What do oseto blast carry out?
mitosis
103
What kind of symmetry do echinoderms have?
radial
104
What are coelenterates?
Carnivores that use tentacles to capture prey
| use nemotocytes- sting cells
105
What are the 4 basic groups?
autotrophic anaerobes- chemosynthetic bacteria
autotrophi aerobes-green plants & photo plankton
heterotrophic anerobes- yeast
heterotropic aerobes- ameoba, humans
106
what are all living things made of?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfar, phosophrus
107
What is the cell theory?
All livings things made of cells
cells basic function unit of life
cells only come from other cell
cell genetic information is in DNA & passed down
108
What is a compound light microscope?
use 2 lenese, nonliving specimens, uses staningin
109
What is phase contrast microscope?
Special Light microscope
| study living things
110
What is electron microscope?
Use beam of electrons
specimens dead
most magnetic
111
Explain nucleus
contains DNA: histones to chromosomes
112
Explain ER
transport material through cell
113
Explain Golgi
receives vesicles form smooth ER and modifies them
| usually do excoytosis
114
Explain Mitocondria
Powerhouse
| aerobic respiration
115
Explain Lysosomes
hydrolytic enzymes
| breaks down material
116
What is autolysis?
Dying tissue commit suicide: bust open lysosomes so hydrolytic enemies are relseased
117
Explain cytoskeleton
microtubles and mircofliaments
| shape, support and function cell mobility
118
What is a hypotonic solution
outside is less concentrated that inside
water goes in
lyse & sell cells
119
What is hypertonic solution
outside is more concentrated than inside
so water goes out
plasomylsis:cells shrivel
120
What is cyclosis/streaming?
circular motion of cytoplasm around transport molecules
121
How does the ER transport material in cell?
channels through cytoplasm
| plasma membrance to nuclear membrane
122
What is an enzymes?
organic catalyst: effects rate of chemical reactions w/o itself being different
regulate metabolsim
123
What is the induced fit theory?
widely accepted theory of enzymes
| active site flexible when right substrate comes in contact wit active site the active site changes to fit substrate
124
What is enzyme reversibility?
enzyme reaction reversible
| product made by enzyme can be decomposed by same enzyme
125
What do enzymes depend on to function properly?
temp,ph, concentration of enzyme & substrate
126
How does enzyme effected by temperature or pH?
inc temp/pH inc rate of enzyme
| until it reaches a threshold, once pass that it alters shape and goes down
127
How are enzymes effected by concentration of enzyme and substrates?
dec enzyme dec substrate- active site unoccupied, rate low
| Inc substrate until all active sites are full, then the extra substrate does not have a effect- plateaus
128
What is hydrolysis>
digest large molecules into smaller components
129
What are cofactors?
enzymes require non protein molecules to become active
| bind w/ covalent bonds
130
What is photosynthesis?
convert energy of sun to chemical energy
131
What is respiration?
chemical energy to energy for living cells
132
What stages of glucose catabolism?
glycolsis and cellular respiration
133
Explain Glycolysis
glucose to 2 pyruvate acids, 4 total ATP, 2 Net ATP
| occurs in cytoplasm
134
What can happen to pyruvate after glycolysis?
anaerobic-fementation( to ethanol/latic acid)
| aerobic-further oxidzed
135
Explain fermentation
Makes ethanol-in yeast & other bacteria
Lactic Acid- O2 lags behind in mucles of humans, fungi, bacteria
uses NAD+ from glycolysis
136
What is cellular resipiraton
Best way to get enrgyt form glucose
make 36- 38 ATP
Aerobic
In mitocondria
137
What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?
1. Pyruvate decarboxylation
2. Citric Acid cycle/ Krebs
3. Electron Transport Chain
138
Explain Pyruvate Decarboxylation
Pyruvate loses CO2, changes to Acteyl CoA
| Happens in Mitochondria
139
Explain Citric Acid Cycle
AKA Kreb Cycle
Uses acetyl CoA from Pyruvate to make stuff
Each turn: 1 ATP, 1 NADH, 1FADH2 per glucose
take these to ETC
140
Explain Electron Transport Chain
In inner mitochondria
ATP made when electrons transfer
Molecules are cytochrome
141
What is the Total energy produced per glucose molecule?
36 Total ATP
6 glycolsis
4 decarb
24- citric acid
142
When carbs are used for alternate energy where?
disaccar to monosaccaride
can be made into glucose
glycogen in liver can be converted
143
Taking fat to energy
lipids to fatty acids to glycerol
| yield greatest number of ATP per gram
144
Taking protein to energy
last resort
transamination reaction- amino acids loses amino group
oxidative deamination- removes ammonia form amino acids
145
What is the calvin cycle?
used by autotrophs for energy
| makes 12 PGAL made in to nutrients
146
Explain Mitosis - 1st 3 steps
I- cell 90% life, sister chromatics held together, Chomatin(Dna uncoiled)
P- Chromosomes condense, centrioles move to opposite poles of cell, nucleus membrane dissolves, spindle app start
M- Centrioles opposite sides, spdile fibers attach to each chrmatid at the centromer, chromosomes move to equator of cell(metaphase plate)
147
What is karyokinesis and cytokinesis?
K-nuclear division
| c-cytoplasm division
148
Explain Mitosis- Next 2 steps
A-centromere spilt, allowing sister chromatids to split, sister c. pulled toward different poles
T- spindle app leveaves, nuclear memnrain forms around chromosomes, nucelsus contain same amount of chromosomes, chromosomes uncoil & revert back to interphase
149
What does meiosis do?
make sex cells
produces hapilod
2 divisons
150
Explain Meosis I 1st 2
P1- chrome some condense, nuclear membrane disappears
| M1- align @ equator, attach to spindle by its kenetochore
151
What is a homologous chromosome?
Chromosome code for same traits
| Come from each parent
152
What do each chromosome have in meiosis?
two sister chromatid and both togeth make tetrad
153
What is crossing over
Some chromatids exchange DNA
154
What is recombination
Caused by crossing over
| give genetic diversity
155
Explain Meosis 1 2nd half
A1- homo pais separate, disjunction-each parent chromo split and go opposite ways & creates diversity
T1- Nucelous memebrane forms
156
Explain Meosis II
makes haploid
Human Feamle, only one gametes function
Follow Mitosis: Chrom allighn separate to apposite poles and split into
157
Where are gametes made?
males- semiinferous tubules-sperm
| females- overies- oocytes
158
What animals are usual hermaphrodites?
Hydra & earthworms
159
Explain Spermatogenesis
in semiinferous tubles
| spermatogonai to meosis to haploid sperm
160
Explain structure of sperm
Head of sperm- unsells and contain genome
tail of sperm- propel it
neck & body- mitochondria powerhouse allow movement
161
Explain structure of oocytes
Conatin cytoplasm, RNA, & nutrients needed for development
162
Where is external fertilization?
Fish & amphibians
| reduce chance of fertilization
163
Where is internal fertilization?
Gives direct rout to sperm
| female produce less eggs
164
How does sperm travel?
SEVEN UP
| Seminiferous tubules, epidymiss, vas deferns, ejaculation duct, NOTHING, ureth, penis
165
What is the female follicles
sac of cells contain nutrients, produce estrogen & protect ovum
166
Where does the fetus develop?
Uterus
| Fllopian tube opens to it
167
What is the cervix?
LOwer end of uterus
where sperm deposited
connects with vagina
168
What hormones do the ovaries secrete?
Regulated by LH & FSH: Estorgen and progesterone
169
What is estrogen?
Steroid Horomone
Stimulate development of female reproduction
Sex Drive
sexual Characteristic
Endometrium-thickening of uterine wall
Secreted by ovaries follicles & corpus luteum
170
What is progesterone
Steroid Hromone
Secreted by corpus luteum during mesntral cycle
Stimulates-
Development & maintnece of ednometral walls
Implate to make baby
171
What are the four stages of menstral cycle?
Follicular cycle
Ovulation
Luteal Phase
Menstration
172
What is the Follicular cycle of the menestral cycle?
FSH from pituitary promotes devilment of follicle & begins to secreting estrogen
173
What it ovulation of the menestral cycle?
Midway
A good follicle burst & release ovum
Caused by LH- scaled by peak in estrogen
174
What is the luteal phase of the menestral cycle?
LH cause ruptured follicle to develop in corpus lutem
| Progesterone cause endomentrium to mature & secrete the stuff is need for implantaion
175
What is the menstration of the menstral cycle?
Ovum not fertilized
corpus lute waste away
progesterone & estrange drop
Causes mensis- endomentrum falls off
176
What happens in fertilization?
Developing placent makes HCG- Human Charinoic Goanadotripin
| Maintains the corpus luteum, Estorgen and progesterone (until placenta can make its own)
177
What are asexual processes?
Fission- DNA replicate to new plasma to cell split, equal size
Budding- unequal separate by pinching
Regeneration- regrow body part by mitosis ex salmon, starfish
Parthenogenisis- develop egg with out unfertilization
178
What is the sexual reproduction in plants?
sporphye to gametothyte
179
What is the law of segregation?
Exsist in alternateive fore alleles
180
What is the Law of Dominance?
Dominant and recessive alles
| homozygous, heterozygous
181
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
Cross two different trait
| gene separate on chromosomes and assort differein meosis
182
What is the ration for F1 generation?
9:3:3:1
183
What is incomplete dominance?
phenotypes blend
| heterozygous mix phenotype
184
What is codominacne?
Mutiple alleles exist for a gene & make more than 1 is dominant
both alleles expressed
185
What is nondisjunction?
Homologus chromosomes fail to separate in Meosis I, makes trisomny and monsomy
186
What is Chromosome breakage?
Spontaneous, enviromenta(X-ray)
187
What are examples of genetic disorders?
Phenyl Ketohuria- can't make metabolism phenalaline
| Sickle Cell- RBC crescent shape, single base pair substation
188
Which nucleotides are purianes and pyridines
CUI the PIE- Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine are prymadines
| Adidenes & guanine are purines
189
What is the mRNA?
Nucleus to ribosomes
Carries complementary DNA sequence
mRNA makes the capy of DNA mother strand
leaves through nucleus pores
190
What is tRNA?
in cytoplasm
Translates mRNA to amino acids
Takes amino acids to ribosomes during protein sytnthesis
191
What is rRNA
structural component of ribosome
MOST ABUNDANT
Synthesized in nucleolus
192
What is the anticodon?
compen to one mRNA codon
193
What are episomes?
Plasmids that are capable of getting into the bacterial genome
194
What is the direction of DNA replication?
5' to 3'
195
What is transduction?
Bacterial chromosome fragments become apart of host cell during viral infection with recombination
bacteriophage attaches to cell and release DNA and the cell reduces more phages
196
What is a bacteriophage
virus that infect host bacterium by attaching to it and injects it DNA
Has 2 cycles
197
What is the lyric cycle in bacteriophages?
Takes control of genetic machinery
makes a lot of babies
Bacterial Cell lysises & release virions(babies)
198
What does virulent mean?
Kill their host
199
What is lysogenic Cycle?
Does NOT lysis host cell
Inserts DNA in to host cell
Lies dormant
When it is active it can go through the lytic cycle
200
What are southern blots?
Detec specific DNA sequences
201
What does DNA Ligase?
Join DNA fragment by making phsopodiester bonds bw DNA nucleotides
202
What is the early develop meant of zygote?
Fertilzation then cleavege
203
What is cleavage?
Rapid miotic dividson
volume remains the same but # of cells grow
inc surface to volume ratio
204
How are twin made?
inter determinate cleavage cells maintain ablitily to develop complete organisms
205
What is determinate cleavage?
Cells where pathway determined in early development
206
what the 3 completion of cleavage?
1st- zygote 32 hrs after fertilization
2nd….
3rd 72hrs now it is 8 cells & will reach uterus
207
What is morula?
solid ball of embryonic cells
208
When does blastualtion start?
When morula make fluid cavity
| Blastuala- 4th day hollow sphere
209
What is gastulation?
3 layered formed form blastula
210
What is chorion
lines inside shell; gas exchange
211
What is allantosis
respiration and excretion; transport O2, CO2, water, etc in blood
connects to placenta
212
what is amnion
amniotic fluid, protect embrio form shock
213
What is the yolk sac?
gives nutrients to embryo by blood vessels
| associated with umbilical vessels
214
What animal does nonplacental development?
Marsupials
| young born young
215
What is the vascular system in protozoans?
simple diffusion
216
What is the vascular system in Cnidarians?
Body two walls thick
| have direct contact with internal and external
217
What is the vascular system of Arthopods?
Open circulatory system
blood direct contact with tissue
have dorsal vessels and into sinuses
218
what are the vascular system of annelids?
Closed circulatory
blood in vessels & moves toward head
no RBC
219
Define circulation of blood in humans
O2 blood-LV-Aorta- Arteries - arterioles-capillaries(gas exhange)- venules- veins- inferior & superior vena cava-RA-RV- pulmonary arteries-lungs(get O2)-pulmonary vein- LA- LV
220
What are arteries?
Thick walled, transport O2 away from heart
| except pulmonary arteries
221
What are veins?
Thin, elastic
Take DeO2 to heart
except pulmonary beings
Suspectiable to gravity
222
What are capillaries?
thin & diffuse gases & nutrients easily
| smallest
223
What are lymph vessels?
Transport lymph
224
What is in blood plamsa?
Iiquid portion
mix of gases, waste, hormones,
cellular component- platelets. leukocytes, eryhtocytes
225
What is released to platlets & damaged tissue?
thromboplastin activates platelets
226
What does thrombin activate?
fibrinogen to fibrin
| which coats damaged are & trap blood cells
227
What is active immunity?
Makes antibodies during immune response
| vaccines
228
What is passive immunity?
transfer antibodies of another organism to another one
| ex placenta
229
What are nonspecific denfense mechanism?
Skin- physical
mucous- example respiratory tract
Macrophages
immflammation- dilate blood vessels
Granulocytes- respond to fever, antigenic material
Interferons- proteins made under viral attach
Allergies- inappropriate response to food/pollen
230
Where is the adrenal gland located?
Kidney
231
What does the adrenal cortex secrete?
Stress response
| Steroid hormones-corticosteriod(made form cholesterol), mineralcorticosteriod, cortical sex hormone
232
What are glucocorticoids?
Cortisol & cortisone
make glucose
lower protein synthesis
233
What are mineralocorticoids
Aldostrone-regulate plasma levels, NaCl, K,
Reabsorb NaCl
Reabsore H2O in nepheron
inc blood volume & pressure
234
What are cortical sex hormones?
Androgen(male & female sex hormone)
In males testes- adrenal androgen little effect
in females over porduction: masculatin effects
235
What does the adrenal medulla produce?
Catecholamines- epinephrein & nonepinerpherine: neruptranmitters
236
What is epinephrine?
Makes glucose in liver & muscles
inc blood glucose levels
inc basal metabolic rate
Inhibit simple functions like digestion stuff not needed for survival
237
What is the flight or flight respones?
uses both epinephrine or non epinephrine
| inc blood, heart rate
238
What are control adrenal hormones?
ACTH- adreno crtiotrophic hormones
Controls release of hormones
Secreted by Anterior pituitary gland
Stimulate synthesis of glucocortiriod & sex steriods
239
What are direct hormones?
goes directly to organ
PiG
Prolatin & Growth Horomone
240
What are tropic hromones
stimulate endocrine gland to release hormones
FLAT
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH
241
What is GH?
Secreted by Anterior pituritarty gland
growth of bone & muscles
factor in dwarfism/gigantism
242
What is Prolactin?
Female mammary glands Makes milk & secretion
243
What is ACTH
makes and secretes glucocorticoids
244
What is TSH?
Thyroid stimulating hormone
| synthesis & release third hormones: thyroxin
245
What is LH?
Lutenizing hormone
Stimulate ovulation & formation of the corpus lute
In males- testes to make testosterone
246
What is FSH
Follicle stimulating Hormone
Females- mature ovairan follicueles: secrete estorgens
Males- mature semi tubles: sperm productions
247
What is MSH?
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Secreted my intermide one
in frog makes them dark
248
What does the posterior pituitary gland do?
Does NOt Synethesize hormones
| store and release: oxytocin, ADH- made by hypothalamus
249
What is oxytocin?
Secreated during child birth
inc strength & frequency of contraction
stimulate mil secretion
250
What is ADH?*
Anitdiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin
Inc permeability of Nepheron: in collecting duct promote H2O
Inc blood flow
251
What is the process of secreting a hormone?
Hypoth- hyopo hormone- anterior- Ap hormone- perpipheral endocrine gland- peperpherial gland hormone- target
252
Where does the hypothalamus revive transmission
brain & peripheral nerve
253
What does the hypothalamus stimulate?
Anterior to secrete FSH & LH
254
What does the thyroid make and secrete?
thyroxin, thriiodothy rohine and calcitonin
255
What do thyroxine & triiodothyrane do?
necessary for growth & neuroglical development
| inc metabolism in body
256
What is calcitonin?
Dec plasm Ca2+ by stopping its release in bone
| regulated by plasma levels
257
What type of organ is the pancreas?
Exocrine and endocrine
258
What dos the exocrine do?
cells secrete digestive enzymes into small intestine
259
What is the endocrine?
Islets of langrenans
alphas cells-secrete & make glucagon
beta cells- produce and secrete insulin
260
What is Glucagon?
Breaks down fat & protein
inc blood glucose levels
glycogan-glucose-glucoeogenesis
261
What is insulin?
Secret in response of high blood glucose
glucose-glycogon
make glucose form fat
262
What are the parathyroid glands?
screate parathyroid hromones-PTh
| regulates plasma Ca2+ inc concentration in blood
263
What is renin
sto stimulation once H2O inc in kidney
convert plasmaw
secreates aldosterone
264
What is secretin?
released by small intestine
when acidic food inter stomach
stimulate secretion of alkaline bicarbonate: neutrizes chyme
265
What is cholecystokinin?
released by small inteste bc of fats
cause contraction of gall bladder
releases bile- digest fats
266
What does the pineal gland secrete?
melatonin
| helps with circadian rhythms
267
What is the structure of a neuron?
Dendrities, cell body and axon
268
What is a dendrite
receives info and transmit to cell body
269
What is a cell body(somas)?
Nucleus and controls metanolic activity
270
What is an axon?
Takese impulse away from cellbody
271
What is myelin?
Allows axons to conduct impulse faster
produces glial cell
in animals
272
What are oligodendrocytes?
Make myelin( CNS)
273
What are schwann Cells
Make myelin(PNS)
274
What are nodes of Ranner?
Gaps bw segments of mylein
275
What are synaptic terminals?
Ends of axon
neurotransmitters released
nerve to synapse(gap bw axon terminals)
276
What is the function of neuron?
Revieves signals form sensory receptors /form other neurons
| Take inför from length of axon
277
What are impulses?
Action potentials
travel length of axon
invade nerver terminals- causes release of neurotransmitter to synapse
278
What is a neuron at resting potential?
Polarized
| typical -70mV: more inside than out
279
*Which move in and out cells, K+ Na+?
K+, goes down concentration gradient
| Na+ is impermeable
280
What does the cell body do in action potential?
revieves excitatory and inbitor impuleses
281
What type of cells make action potential?
Excited or depolarized
282
What is the threshold for action potential
min -50mV
283
What starts action potential
When voltage gate NA+ channel open bc depolarization
284
What are votalge gated ion channels?
open to changes in voltage
285
*What happens with Na+ and K+ channels?
Na+ closes
| K+ open
286
What is a synapse?
bw axon terminal and dendrite(postsynaptic neuron)
287
What are effector cells?
neuron take to postsynaptic cells
288
What are neurotransmitters?
membrane bond vesciles
| can depolarize posynaptic cells and start action potential
289
What does action potential do?
Allows nerve terminals to depolarize
| allow synaptic vesicles to attach to presynaptic membrane
290
How to get rid of neurotransmitter?
Taken back in terminal-can be reused
broken down by enzyme
diffuse out of synapse
291
What are afferent neurons?
take sensory info TO brain/spinal cord
292
What are efferent?
motor commands FROM brain and spinal to body
293
What are interneurons?
Local circuits
| link sensory & motor in spinal cord
294
What is a nerve?
bundle of axon w/ connective tissue
295
What is plexus?
network of nerve fibers
296
What is ganlia
cll bodies clustered together
297
What are the two major nervous system?
Central and peripheral
298
What is in the CNS?
Brain & spine
299
What are 3 parts of the brain?
forebrain, midbrain, & hindbrain
300
What is the forebrain?
telencephalon
cebral cortex
high gray matter
Olfactoy bulb
301
What does the forebrain do?
process & interepates sensory input, motor responses(memory, creativity)
302
What is the dincephaon?
thalamus & hypothalumus
303
What does the thalamus do?
Rely and intergrate center for spinal cord & cortex
304
What is the hypothalamus?
Visceral functions-hunger, sex
| control endocrine
305
What is the midbrain?
Visual & auditory impluses
| import motor control
306
What is in the hindbrain?
cerebellum, pons, & medulla
307
What is the cerebellum?
modulate motor impulses by cortex
| mantenace of balance sy coordination, rapid movements
308
What are pons?
allow cortex communication with cerebellum
309
What is the medulla?
Vital fucntions
| breathing, heart rate, gastreo stuff
310
What is gray matter?
outter brain, cell bodies
311
What is white matter?
inner brain myelin axon
312
What does the spinal cord do?
information afrom brain travel though this
| can do motor(reflexes)
313
What is the dorsal horn>
where sensory info enter spinal cord
| cell bodies are in ganglia dorsal rooot
314
What is the ventral horn?
ALL motor info exits spinal cord
315
What is peripheral Nervous system
Nerves ang ganglia
| sensory nerves that enter CNS & motor nerves that leave CNS
316
What is apart of Peripheral Nervous system?
Somatic Nervous system and Autonomic nervous system
317
What is the somatic nervous system?
Skeletal muscles
| volunarty movements
318
What is the autonomic nervous system?
Invountary movements
| use cardiac and smooth muscles
319
Where is smooth muscle normally located?
in blood vessels, bladder, GI
| import an for BP control, GI movement, Respiration, reproduction
320
What are the two subdivisions to the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic
| Parasympathetic
321
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
flight or fight response
| uses norpepherherine
322
What is the parasympatheic
conserves energy
| takes body to resting
323
What is the vagus nerve
uses acetylcholine
| innervates thoracic and abdominal viserea
324
What do the eyes do?
photons detect light energy takes it info to brain
325
What does the sclera do?
thick, opaque layer cover eyeball , white of eye
326
What is the choroid?
supply retina w/ blood
below sclera
reduces refelection in eye
327
What is the retina
small area densely pack with cones
innermost layer
photoreceptors that sense light
328
What is the cornea?
front, bends and focuses light
329
What is the pupil
let light enter
330
What is the iris?
control diameter
can be pigmented
responds to light intensity
331
What is the lens>
Behind pupil
focus image on retina
focal length-controlled by cillary muscles
332
What are photo receptors?
cones and rods
333
What are cones
see Red, green, blue
| incresase intensity illumination senstive to color
334
What are rods
low intensity illumination
| good for night
335
What is the optic nerve>
bundle of ganglion cells
visuals inför to brain
we're it exist blind spot
336
What is the vitreous humor
jelly like
| give shape and maintains properties of eye
337
What is the aqueous humor?
Made by eye
| exits through duct to blood
338
What are a few eye disorders?
myopia-nearsighted
hyperopia-farsighted
astigmatis
glaucoma-inc pressure bc of blocking of the aqueous humor
339
What is the outer ear?
Auricle and auditory canal
340
Do protoza have a nervous system?
No
341
Do cnidaria have a nervous system
Have a nerve net
| simple nerovous system
342
DO annelida have a nervous system?
prmative CNS
| have ganglia, cell bodies, nerve cord,
343
Do arthropoda have a nervous system?
similar to annelids
| made some organs to do it such as simple eyes
344
What is the respiration in protozoa and hydra
gas exchange through diffusion
345
What is the reparation in annelids?
mucous on external surface allow diffusion
346
What is the respiration for arthopoda
Tracheae- respiratiory tubules
| Spiracles-access surface by hoeles
347
How do human breath?
They inhale then gas exchange and exhale waste
348
What is in inhalation?
diaphragm contracts and pushes against rib cage
allow lungs to expand
increase thoracic cavity
349
What is exhalation
passive process
muscles relax
chest wall pushed inward
350
Where does gas change occur?
pulmonary capillaries around aveoli
351
How do cilia and flagella move?
use microtubles
| flagella move by power stroke
352
What is recovery stroke>
cilium and flagellum back to original postion
353
How does the amoeba move?
pseudopodia,
354
How do flat worms move?
hydrostatic skeletons- contract against incompressible fluid
355
How do annelids move
can move individual segments
| use hydrostatic skeleton
356
What is setae
bristles in each segment
357
What are the exoskeletons of arthropod?
Chitin secreted by epidermis
358
What does cartilage do>
connect to tissue
359
What is compact bone
dense bone no cavities
360
What are osteons?
haversian system
| deposited in structual units
361
What is spongy bone?
less dense, interconnecting lattice of bony spices
362
What are the differences of yellow and red bone marrow?
hello-inactive works with adipose tissue
| red -cell formation
363
What are osteoblasy
make bone matrix
364
What are osteoclasy
break down bone
365
How to make bone
intramembrances ossification of mesenchmal connective tissue
366
What is the axial skeleton
body framework
| skull, rib cage
367
What are appendicular skeleton?
Appendages
368
What are sutures
immovebale joint
| ex skull
369
Whay are ligaments
movable joints
| bone to bone
370
What are tendons?
muscle to bon
371
What is skeletal muscle?
Voluntary movements
controlled by somatic
fibers multinucleated
372
What are myofibrials
they go to screamers
| covered by sarcomplasmic reticulum
373
What is sarcoplasm?
cytoplasm of muscle fibers
374
What is sarcolema
cell membrane
can start action potential
connected to T system
375
What are sarcomere?
thin and thick filaments
thin-chains of actin molecules
thick mysolin
376
What are z lines in sacromere>
define bounds for singale sarolmere
| anchor thin filments
377
What are the mine in sacromere
center
378
What is 1 band?
region congaing ONLY thin filaments
379
What is H zone?
thick filaments only
380
What is A band?
entire length of thick filaments and overlapping of thin filaments
381
What is smooth muscles?
```
Involuntary
controlled by ANS
one central nucleus
no stiraitons
located: digestive, bladder, blood
```
382
What is Cardiac Muscle?
Heart
Strated in apperarnce: actin and myosin
general 1 or 2 local nuclei
383
How do cnidarians digest?
secrete enyzmes
384
How to annelids digest?
mouth and butt
| spealized organs: intesting, gizzards
385
How do arthropods digest?
similar to annelid
| have jaws and salivary glands
386
What is mastication
chewing
387
What enzymes do saliva contain?
almylase
| startch to maltose
388
What does pepsin do?
protein hydro enzyme
| HCL-kills bateria, dissolves food, activates certain proteins
389
What is chyme?
acidic semi fulid semidiesseted
| pushed thought 1st segment doudenum
390
What does the small intestine do?
Complete chemical digestion
| absorb with villi
391
What are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
duodenum, illum, jujnum
392
What does the vili do in the small intestine?
amino acids, sugar, use vessels of lymphatic system(capillarities and lacteus[fatty & glycerol)
393
Where does the most digestion occur?
duodenum
| secretion form liver, gallbadder, etc
394
What does the mucosa secrete?
Lipases(fat digestion)
aminopeptidase(polypeptide)
dissacrada(sugar)
395
What does the liver do?
```
produce bile(stored in gallbladder)
emusifies fat
```
396
What does the pancreas do?
```
Secrete:
Amylase-carbs
Typsin-protein
vipase-fat
neurtalizes chyme
```
397
What does the large intestine do?
absorb salt and leftover H2O
398
What is the digestive system in plants and fungi?
There isn't one
399
What does aerobic respiration, and deamination?
produces H2O CO2
| Nitrogen waste made
400
Where is metabolic wast excreted?
Kidney!
401
How do protozoans and cnidarians excrete?
simple difussion
| contractile vacules-used by H2O
402
How do annelids excrete?
CO2 execrated by skin
Nephrida
2 pair
excrete h2o, salts, N waste by urea
403
How do arthropods excrete?
Trachea-releases CO2
Uric acid crystals- n waste, allows h2o be conserved
malphigian tubluels-
404
What is the acrosome?
Head of sperm
| Contains hydrolytic enzymes
405
What are malphigian tubules?
salts nd acid accumulate and transported to intestine explled as solid waste
406
What are kidneys composed of?
Nephrons
407
What are the 3 regions of the kidney
outer cortex inner medulla, renal,pelvis
408
What is the bowman campsule
nephron bulb, embraces golmerous, lead to tubele
409
What are the 4 units of the tubule of kidney
proximal convoluted tubule, loop of hence, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct
410
What is the ureter?
empties into unitary bladder
411
How does the urine get to the ureter?
tubules-pelvis-ureter
412
What is the urethra
expells urine
413
What are the peritubulary capillaries?
nephron surround by this
| help absorbs: amino acid, sugar, etc
414
What is the function of nephron?
reabsorbs nutrients
| maintain blood concentration
415
What is the osmolarity gradient
established bt tubule
| urea & nacl matain gradient
416
What keep osmolarity gradient in collecting tubulee?
Loop of henel: allows 99% of filtrate to be reabsorped
417
What causes the kidney to be hyperosmolar?
countercurrent system effect the medium in the medulla
418
What does hormone ADH do to collecting tubules?
regulates permeability of water with collecting tubule
419
What does hormone ADH do to collecting duct?
inc permambility
allow H2O be reabsorbed
Urine to concretion to be formed
420
What controls the simple reflexes?
spinal cord
421
What signaling of the simple reflexes
two neurons from receptor(afferent) to motor(efferent)
422
What are complex reflexes?
startle responds-alert signficate stimulus
423
What controls complex reflexes
neural intergation at brainstem and cerebrum
424
What are fixed action patterns?
complex, coordinated, innate(CANNOT be CHANGED)
425
What is a releaser?
stimulus that make a behavior
426
What are behavior cycle?
Daily-circadian rhythms
427
What are environmental rhythms?
patters of behavior established and maintained
| eg stop light
428
What is habituation?
simplest learning patterns involving suppression of normal startle response
429
What is spontaneous recovery?
if stimulus not applied anymore the other respond will come back
430
What is classic condition?
normal automatic.visceral response w/ an environment stimulus
431
What is Palvlov experiments
used dogs with obituary stimuli to connect with innate resones
432
What is unconfined stimulus
an establies innate reflex
433
What is unconditioned respones
the respond that is naturally elicited
434
What is a neurtol stimulus
will not make respones
435
What is condition stimuli and reflex?
learned stimulus
436
What is pseudocondutioning
neutral stimuli already gives response
437
What did BF skinner do>
conditioning respones to stimuli with reward/reinfrocement
438
What is habit family hierarchy>
several possible responses each different probability of occurrence
439
What raises or lowers habit family hierarchy?
reward or punishment
440
What is extinction in condition behavior?
gradual elimination of respond bc no reinforcement
441
What is stimuli generalization?
condition organism respond to a similar sitmuli
442
What is stimulus discrimination?
able to respond differently to slightly different stimuli
443
What is stimulus generalization gradient
stimuli further and further away from the original stimuli elicit response with dec magnitude
444
What is imprinting?
Pattern & object leaned in develop organism become permeant element of behavior
445
What is critical period?
in animals early development when it can mentally get specific patterns
needs proper environment
446
What is visual period?
need intro to light or visual effectors work
447
What is pecking order?
same species live together and dominate member over subordinate
448
How much territory does a large population have?
small
449
What are releaser pheromones
triger reversible behavioral changes in the recipient
| e.g.: sex attractant or alarm
450
What are primer pheromones
produce long term behavioral and physiological attraction in recipient animals
e.g.: limit sexual reproduction in areas of high animal density
451
What is abiotic and biotic
abiotic-physical, climate
| biotic-living
452
What is population
organism living together in a location
453
What is community?
different plants and animals interacting in similar enivorment
454
What is ecosystem?
community and environment
| living and nonliving
455
What is a biosphere?
all planet life source
| atomsphere, etc
456
What is humus
quanitiy that is determined by amount of decaying plant and animal life in the soil
457
What is a niche
function role of organism in system
458
Who can share a niche?
NO TWO SPECIES CAN OCCUPY THE SAME
459
What is predation?
predators are free living organism that feed on other organismz
460
What are scavengers?
animals that eat dead animals
| no need to hunt or kill prey
461
What is poilkilothermic?
coldblooded
energy escapes to environment
closer to the enviormnet temp
462
What is homeothermic?
warmblooded
can use heat produced
hotter than environment
463
Who are primary consumers?
animals that consume green plant
| example cows, etc
464
Who are secondary consumers?
carnivores
465
Who is at the bottom of the food pyramid?
producers
466
What happens as you go up the food pyramid?
less energy, less mass, and few organism
467
What is the nitrogen cycle?
nitrogen need building block
absorbed y plants
waste in ammonia
468
What is the carbon cycle
plants use for glucose for photosynthesis
469
What is cycling?
used to cycle material bw living system and environment
| VERY CRITICAL
470
What is climax community?
stable icing biotic part of the ecosystem
471
What is ecological succession?
orderly process by which on biotic community replaces or succeeds another until a climax community established
472
What is a sere?
community stage, makes ecological succession
473
What is in a desert biome?
10 in or less rain
| small animals and plants
474
What is in the grassland biome?
low rain fall
| no shelter for animals
475
What is tropical rain forest biome?
Jungles
High temp and a lot of rain
dense vegatation
epiphytes and sacrophytes
476
What is a epiphytes?
plants that grow on another plant
477
What is in a temperate deciduous forest biome?
Cold, warm, and moderate rain
trees
e.g., East coast of america
478
What is in temperate coniferous forest biome?
cold & dry
conserve H2O
eg USA north
479
What is in the taiga Biome?
Little less H2O than temperate forest
long cold winters
ex Russia Canada
480
What is in the tundra biome?
no trees
frozen
litte veg
short summer
481
What is in the polar biome?
NOTHING
| but a little it of animals and veg
482
What is a marine biome?
oceans control earth temp
| constant amount of nutrients and salt
483
What is the intertidal zone?
low tides, dry
| where the alge is
484
Littoral zone
up 600 feet to the shore
| small fish
485
Pelagic zone
Open sea
| Photic and aphotic zone
486
What is Photic zone?
Sun light layer
| sharks and plants
487
Aphotic Zone
only hetertophs
| VERY competitive
488
Freshwater Biomes
Rivers, lakes, ponds, marshes
currents
effected by temp and climate
489
What kind of solution do freshwater biomes have?
hypotonic
490
Classification and subdivision order
```
Kingdom
Phyla
Subphyla
Classes
Order
Families
Genus
Species
```
491
What are the 5 kingdoms?
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plante, Animalia
492
Are viruses consider a kingdom?
NO
not really living
can't function outside host
493
Monera
Prokaryotes-bacteria
no nucleus
single cell
494
Protista
Eukaryotes( plant and animals
| no special tissues
495
Fungi
No photsyhtetic plants
saprophytic. parasitic
chitin cell walls
496
Plante
mutilcellular diff tissue
no mobility
photosynthesis
497
Animalia
Multicellular
| moltile different tissues
498
Cynobacteria
Monera
live in freshwater and marine
cell wall & photosynthesis pigments
no flagella, nucleus, etc
499
Other Bacteria
Single cell with DNA loop
| cell walls
500
Cocci
circle
501
Bacilli
rod
502
Spirilla
spiral
503
other morphological apprences of bacteria
duplexes, clustors, chains
504
Protozoa
Protista
single cell heterotorphs
rhizopods-ameoba
ciliphors- use cilia for food and movement
505
Algae
Protista
| Primary organism for photosynthesis
506
Protist resemble fungi
example Slime mold
| arranged with many nuclei
507
Eukaryotes
```
Fungi
mutilcellular
hetertophs
saprophytic
axsecual
```
508
Metazoa: Tissues
They different in tissues, organ, organ system
509
Metazoa: Alimentation
they ingest, digest, & eliminate remains
| except: some parasites
510
Metazoa: Locomotion
creat current to trap food
| get around, mate selection, reproduction
511
Metazoa: symmetry
Bilateral
| except Echinoderms and Cnidarians
512
Metazoa: Nervous System
receive stimuli and control actions
| use certain organs
513
Metazoa: Chemical- Coordinating System
Secreate hormones fro homeostasis with help of nervous system
514
Porifera
```
Animalia
Sponges
2 layer of cells
sessil
low cell specialization
```
515
Cnidarians
Animalia
Gastrovascular cavity
2 layer of cells-ecto and endoderm
516
Cnidarians special features
tenticales
net nerve
sting cells
517
Gastrovascular cavity
used in cnidarians
| digestive sac sealed at one end
518
Mollusca
```
Soft bodied excret calcereous exoskeleton
breaht ingills
chambered hear
blood sinus
ventral nerve chord
```
519
ARthopoda
Jointed appenges
Chitin
3 open Cirulartory
3 classes
520
3 Classes of Arthopoda
Insects, Arachnids, Crustatens
521
Insects
3 pairs of legs, spiracles, tracheal tubes
522
Arachnids
4 pairs of legs
book lungs
eg spiders, scorpians
523
Crustatens
Segmented body
# of appendages caries
got gills
ex shrimp, lobster
524
Echinodrms
```
Spiny
Radical Symmetry
H20 vascular system
reginerate parts
eg starfish
```
525
Chordates
Notochord
have gill slits and tail at some point
Lacelets and tunicates: not vertebrates
526
Vertebrates
Most advance
bone
Bony vertebrate replace notochord
Skull
527
Types of Vertebrates
```
Fish
Amphibia
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
```
528
Fish
2 chamber heart
| gills use external environment to repoduce
529
Jawless fish
Eel like
cartilge skeleton
eg lamprey
530
Cartilgionous Fish
Jaw and teeth
reduced notochord
semented verebrae
eg shark
531
Bony Fish
```
Most prevelant
scales
lack notochord
cartilage to bone
eg tuna, trout
```
532
Amphibia
lavre: tadpole, gills, tails & no legs
Live on land
Lungs, legs, 3 chamber heart
exteranl fertilization
533
Reptiales
```
Terestrial Animals
Breaht Air
Lay hard eggs
internal fertilation
poilkiothemic
3 chamber heart
eg turtle, snake
```
534
Birds
4 chamber heart
homeothermic
lay eggs in shell
535
Mamals
Homeothermic
| Feed offspring with milk
536
Mammals: Marsuoluls
pouched animals
embryo grow in uterus
complete growth in pouch
537
Mammals: Placenta Mammals
embryo grow fully in uterus
placenta attacehs to embyro
ex bat, man
538
Pertification fossils
minerals replace cells of organism
539
Imprint Fossils
Impression left
| e.g. foot print
540
Mold Fossils
form hallow spaces of rock
541
Cast fossils
Mineral depostis in mold
542
Homologous structures
similar structures same origins
| wings of bat, flippers of whale and arm of men
543
Analogous structures
similar functions with different origins
| e.g. wings of a fly with wings of a bird
544
Comparatice Embryology
stages of development reseml organism evolutionary history
545
Comparative Biochemistry
Similar metabolic processes
546
Vestiigial structures
appear to be useless but apparently had some ancestral function
547
Purpose of migration
dec intraspecific competiviton
548
Reproductive isolation
genetic difference will reach a point where successful interbreeding becomes impossible with population if barriers were removed
549
Parsimony
Least complex expiation of evolution
550
Lamarckian evolution
DISCRETED!
new organs and stuff cam bc organism needed them
inheritance of aqcuired characteristics
551
Darwin: Over population
more offspring produce than can survive
552
Darwin: Variations
Offspring natural different than parents ; Darwin didn't know the source
553
De Vries
Suggested mutations are the cause of variations in offspring
554
Darwin: Competiton
develop population compete for necessities
| young die, but adults stay constant
555
Darwin: Natural Selection
Survival of fittest
| variations that give advantages over other species
556
Darwin: Inheritance of variations
with favorable variation reproduce and pass on genes
557
Darwin: Evouliton of New species
Many generation of natural selections
eventually make new species
eg: insects resisatance to inspecticide
558
Gene pool
sum of total alleles for any given trait in population
559
Gene frequence
fraction that represents the presence of allele for members of gene loci
560
What does p and q mean?
P-frequence of dominate alle
| q- fréquence of récessive allele
561
Hardy- Weinberg principle
Change gene frequences explan evolution
562
5 conditions of population for hardy weinberg principle
1. Population is very large
2. there are no mutations that affect the gene pool
3. Mating between individuals in pollution is random
There is no net migration of individuals into or out of the population
4. The genes in the population are equally successful at reproducing
563
Equation for Hardy Weinberg
p + q = 1
| p^2+ 2pq+ q^2=1
564
What does p^2 mean in hardy weinberg
frequency of dominante homozygotes
565
What does 2pq mean in hardy weinberg?
frequency of heterozygoters
566
What does q^2 mean in hardy weinberg?
frequency of recessive homozygotes
567
Microevolution
the truth that of populations be hardy weinberg is impossible
568
Mircoevolution: Natural Selection
Favorable genotypes
| fréquence inc in gene pool
569
Microevouliton: Genetic Drfit
change in composition due to gene pool due to chance
570
Mircoevolution: Assortive Mating
If mate chosen, by phenotype and proximity
will effect ratio of genotype
usually allele frequency stay constant
571
Microevolution: Mutation
change frequency
| shift equlibria
572
Microevoultion: Gene Flow
Migrate bw population loss in/gain of gene
| change composition of population gene pool
573
Speciation
evolution of new species by group that can interbreed freely but not with other members of the species
574
Speciation: Deme
small local poluaitons
they really resemble each other
eg beavers
575
Speciation: Development of New species
when species can't mate anymore
make a new species
due to gentic variation, chang in enviroment, etc
576
Speciation: Evolutionary History
Dissimilar special evolved form common ancestor
| ex: convergent, parallel, adpative raditaion
577
Speciation: Isolation
Caused by geographic isolation
no gene flow
changes will eventually cause a new species and mating with the other group is impossible
578
Okazaki fragments
short fragments from dis continuous synthesis
579
What is vascular cambium?
Makes secondary xylem and phloem
| Helps sustain planet growth laterally
580
What is cork cambium?
Makes woody part of plant
| Give plant support with structure laterally.
581
Rhizomes
Stems that are underground that can make more sprouts and roots for the plant.
582
What is mycorrhizae?
Hinders the roots of vascular plants
| Increase surface area of roots: so more nutrients and water absorption.
583
What are osteoclasts?
Break down bone
| Stimulated by Parathyroid hormone
584
What are osteoblasts?
Build bone
| Secrete collagen
585
What is cardiac muscle?
Single nucleus
Striated
Complex junctions that have intercalated disk between them
Involuntary
586
What is skeleton muscle?
Multinucleated
Voluntary
Striated
587
What is smooth muscle?
```
Single uncleared
Involuntary
Non striated
Has myosin and actin
Found in bladder, digestive system, blood vessels etc
```
588
What is acrosome in sperm?
It is fast black to stop polyspermy.
| Changes membrane potential.
589
What are cortical granules?
Stop polyspermy
| Enzyme released to harden out Katy so no more sperm can enter.
590
What type of cells does xylem contain?
Teachers and vessel members
591
What makes annual growth rings in plants?
Xylem deposits
592
What does phloem contain?
Sieve tubes which sugars and other solutes conducted
593
What are the hardy Weinberg assumptions?
No isolation, net migration, mutation, natural selection, no change in gene pool
594
Where does sperm maturation take place?
Epididymis
