Biology Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
Mitochondria
A
semi-autonomous, contain some of their own genes mitochondrial DNA is passed via the mother replicate independently (via binary fission)
2
Q
Serial endosymbiosis theory
A
mitochondria evolved from an anaerobic prokaryote engulfing an aerobic prokaryote – creating a symbiotic relationship
3
Q
Rough ER
A
studded with ribosomes, translates proteins for direct secretion into lumen
4
Q
smooth ER
A
Used for lipid synthesis and detoxification of drugs/poisons
transports proteins from RER to Golgi apparatus
5
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
stacked membrane bound sacs
can introduce signal sequences with direct delivery to specific cellular location
secretory vesicles merge with the membrane, contents are released via exocytosis
6
Q
Peroxisomes
A
contain hydrogen peroxide
primary function: breakdown long fatty acid chains via beta-oxidation
7
Q
Cytoskeleton
A
3 components: microfilaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments
8
Q
Microfilaments
A
solid polymerized rods of actin
actin filaments: bundles and networks resistant to compression and fracture
ex: cytokinesis, cleavage furrow
9
Q
Microtubules
A
hollow polymers of tubulin proteins
radiate throughout the cell, provide primary pathways along motor proteins
Ex: cilia and flagella
10
Q
Intermediate Filaments
A
keratin, desmin, etc (diverse group)
Primary fx: cell to cell adhesion, maintenance, integrity of cytoskeleton
11
Q
Epithelial Cells
A
polarized, one side faces lumen and/or outside world, the other faces underlying vessels/structural cells
12
Q
Archaea
A
single celled organisms, “extremophiles”, similar to Eukarya however they have a circular chromosome, divide by binary fission/budding
Resistant to many antibiotics
13
Q
facultative anaerobes
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can toggle between oxygen and non oxygen environments
14
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Aerotolerant anaerobes
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unable to use oxygen for metabolism
15
Q
Gram staining
A
gram + : envelope absorbs crystal violet stain – appears deep purple
Gram - : does not absorb crystal violet stain – appears pink/red
16
Q
gram +
A
cell wall contains peptidoglycan, aid a pathogen by providing a coat of protection
17
Q
gram -
A
cell wall is thin, minimal peptidoglycan
contains an outer membrane with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides
18
Q
Plasmids
A
carry DNA not necessary for survival, so it is not considered part of “genome”, but can help in resistance
carry virulence factors “extrachromosomal”
19
Q
Genetic Recombination (3 types)
A
(3 Types) Transformation – Conjugation – Transduction
20
Q
Transformation
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integrate foreign genetic material into host genome
21
Q
Conjugation
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sexual reproduction
2 cells form conjugate bridge (via sex pili), transfer unidirectionally
22
Q
Transduction
A
only recombination portion that requires a vector
virus carries genetic material from one bacteria to another
Transposons: genetic elements, capable of inserting/removing themselves
23
Q
Series of Bacterial Growth Phases
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lag phase – exponential phase – log phase – stationary phase – death phase
24
Q
Bacteriophages
A
viruses that specifically target bacteria (by injection), contain a capsid, and a tail sheath, tail fibers
25
Viral Genomes
Positive sense: genome translated to fx proteins by ribosomes (similar to mRNA)
Negative Sense: require synthesis of RNA strand complementary to it -- then used as a template for protein synthesis **RNA Replicase ensures the complementary strand is made
26
Retroviruses
Enveloped ssRNA, cells are infected indefinitely (HIV)
*requires reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from ssRNA, then the DNA is integrated into the host's DNA genome = means it must travel to the nucleus
27
Viral Life Cycle (Overview of steps)
Infection -- Translation and Progeny Assembly -- Progeny Release -- Lystic and Lysogenic Cycles
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Translation and Progeny Assembly
(post injection) -- translation of genetic material in order to reproduce
DNA Viruses -- must go to nucleus to be transcribed to mRNA
Viral genome must be returned to original form before packaging
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Lystic
Bacteriophage maximal use of cell, cell swells with new visions, cell lyses, and other bacteria can then be infected
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Lysogenic
If the cell does not lyse due to build up of cells, then it enters lysogenic cycle
virus will be replicated as bacterium reproduces
31
Prions
nonliving, infectious proteins
| triggers miss-folding (reducing protein solubility, protein aggregates form, fx of cell is reduced)
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Viroids
small pathogens, circular single stranded RNA
| "plant pathogens"
33
Steps of Embryogensis
Morula -- Blastula -- gastrula
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Gastrulation
Develops three layers:
1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
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1. Ectoderm
```
outermost layer
-integument (epidermis)
Develops into:
Hair, nails
epithelia of nose, mouth, anal canal
Lens of eye
nervous system and adrenal medulla
```
36
2. Mesoderm
```
Musculoskeletal system
Circulatory system
Excretory system
connective/muscular tissue of digestive and respiratory tracts
Gonads
Adrenal cortex
```
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3. Endoderm
```
Epithelial linings of digestive tract and respiratory tract
Lungs
bladder
liver
pancreas
thyroid
```
38
Induction
differentiation due to selective transcription
| one group of cells influence another group
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Neurolation
development of nervous system (after three divisions form)
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Notochord
rod of mesodermal cells -- develops into spine
| -induces group of ectodermal cells to slide inward, forms neural folds, surround neural groove, fuse into neural tube
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Tip of neural fold
made of neural crest cells
migrate to form peripheral nervous system
(sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, Schwann cells, specific cell types in other tissues)
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three types of stem cells
totipotent: greatest potency, can become anything
pluripotent: already differentiated to three germ layers
multipotent: cells within a group
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Autocrine signaling
signal same cell that released the signal
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Paracrine signaling
signal acts on cells in local area
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Juxtacrine signaling
not usually due to diffusion, cell directly stimulates adjacent cell
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Endocrine signaling
hormones that travel influence target tissue
47
Morphogens
cause determination of cells
based on gradients
diffuse through organize, locations closer have higher concentrations
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Fetal circulation
- fHb: higher affinity to O2 than adult Hb
- R side of heart: pulmonary circulation
- L side of heart: systemic circulation
- umbilical cord: contains more arteries than veins
- oxygenation of blood occurs in placenta
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Umbilical Arteries
- carry blood away from fetus to placenta (deoxygenated blood)
vs. adult arteries carry oxygenated blood away from heart/lungs to systemic circulation
50
Umbilical Veins
- carry blood toward fetus from placenta (carrying oxygenated blood)
vs. adult veins carry deoxygenated blood towards heat/lungs
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3 fetal shunts
Foramen Ovale
Ductus Arteriosus
Ductus Venosus
52
Foramen Ovale
only shunt that connects the two chambers of the heart
-one way valve connects right atrium to left atrium
(allowing flow from R atrium to L atrium -- thus bypassing ventricles)
-after birth, pressure differences reverses the shunts and closes them
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Ductus Arteriosus
shunts leftover blood from pulmonary aorta to aorta
| -direction depends on pressure differential between R and L side of the heart
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Ductus Venosus
only shunt that bypasses the liver
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First trimester development
-major organs develop
-heartbeat at 22 weeks
-eyes, gonads, limbs, liver start to form
@ 5 weeks: embryo 10mm
@ 7 weeks: cartilage (will become bone)
@ 8 weeks: embryo becomes a fetus
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Second trimester development
tremendous growth, more amniotic fluid
| -at the end: 30-36cm in length
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Third trimester development
- rapid growth, brain development
| - 9th month antibodies move from mother to fetus
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Birth
vaginal birth "parturition"
rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle
-coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin
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Steps of vaginal birth
cervix thins -- amniotic sac ruptures -- strong uterine contractions -- birth of fetus -- placenta and umbilical cord (afterbirth) comes out
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production of Myelin
produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
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Soma
- cell body that contains nucleus (location of ER and ribosomes)
- axons carry AWAY from the soma
- dendrites carry TOWARD the soma (receives incoming messages)
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Astrocytes
nourish neurones
form blood-brain barrier
controls transmission of solutes
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Ependymal cells
line ventricles of the brain
produce cerebrospinal fluid
physically supports the brain
shock absorber
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Microglia
phagocytic cells
| ingest/breakdown waste products and pathogens in the CNS
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Speed of nerve impulses
increase length = slower conduction
| increase cross section = faster conduction
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Three mechanisms for neurotransmitter removal
1. broken-down by enzymatic reactions
2. can be brought back into presynaptic neuron using re-uptake carriers
3. they diffuse out of synaptic cleft
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Brain: grey vs. white matter
Grey matter: unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites
| White matter: axons encased in myelin
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preganglionic neuron
in sympathetic and parasympathetic: release acetylcholine
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Postganglionic neuron
in sympathetic: release norepinephrine
| in parasympathetic: release acetylcholine
70
Primary difference between somatic and autonomic nervous system
peripheral ANS contains two neurons, while motor neuron in somatic NS goes directly from spine to muscle (no synapsing)
71
Monosynaptic vs. Polysynaptic Reflexes
Mono: single synapse between receiving sensory neuron and responding motor neuron (knee jerk)
Poly: at least one interneuron between sensory and motor neurons (withdrawal)
72
Two hormones to maintain water homeostasis
ADH and Aldosterone
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ADH (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Peptide Hormone
Produced by: hypothalamus, released by posterior pituitary
Triggered by: low blood volume and increase in plasma osmolarity
Effect: increases water reabsorption in collecting duct, to decrease plasma osmolarity
74
Aldosterone (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Steroid hormone - Mineralcorticoid
Produced by: Adrenal glands
Triggered by: decrease in blood volume (and pressure)
Effect: increases Na/K pump (excretion K and H, reabsorb Na) to increase blood volume, increase water reabsorption
Regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
75
Insulin (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by: Pancreas, released by pancreatic beta cells
Triggered by: high blood glucose
Effect: decreases blood glucose levels
76
Glucagon (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by: Pancreas, released by pancreatic alpha cells
Triggered by: low blood glucose
Effect: increases blood glucose levels (stimulates glycogenolysis)
77
Cortisol (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: steroid: glucocorticoid
Produced by: adrenal cortex
Triggered by: ACTH
Effect: increases blood glucose (by enhancing gluconeogensis, antagonizes insulin), decreased protein synthesis, inhibits immune system
78
Epinephrine (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by: Adrenal Medulla
Triggered by: (stimulated by Sympathetic NS)
Effect: promotes glucogenolysis and fatty acid release from adipose tissue
79
Thryoxine (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by: thyroid gland
Triggered by: (stimulated by TSH)
Effect: promotes metabolism, glycogenolysis, and sugar absorption by intestines
80
Calcitonin (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Thyroid
Produced by: Parafollicular (C) cells in thyroid
Triggered by: high plasma calcium concentrations
Effect: decreases plasma calcium by promoting excretion by the kidneys, promotes Ca storage in bone
81
Two major hormones to maintain glucose homeostasis
Insulin and Glucagon
82
Two major hormones to maintain calcium homeostasis
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (negative feedback)
83
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Parathyroid
Produced by: parathyroid gland
Triggered by: low blood calcium
Effect: increases blood calcium, bone reabsorption, decreases excretion from kidneys, increases Ca reabsorption in gut
84
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of FSH and LH
85
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of GH
86
Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of TSH
87
Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
88
Prolactin-Inhibiting Factor (PIF or dopamine) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by:
Effect: inhibits release of prolactin
89
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated from hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes ovarian follicles (females), spermatogenesis (men)
90
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes ovulation (females), testosterone (men)
91
Adrenocorticoid Hormone (ACTH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from adrenal cortex
92
Peptide Hormones
-produced by hypothalamus and released by pituitary
-composed of amino acids
-Acts as a 2nd messenger, relatively large
-derived from larger proteins, cleaved during post translational processing
-Polar, water soluble
-Cannot pass through plasma membrane
-rapid onset, short lived
Ex. ADH, Oxytocin
93
Steroid Hormones
- those in adrenal cortex and gonads
- derived from cholesterol (-one, -ol, -oid)
- minimally polar, lipid soluble,
- Can pass plasma membrane
- bind, promotes conformational change in cytosolic and intranuclear receptors
- slow onset, long lived
- cannot dissolve in bloodstream (must be carried by proteins)
94
Amino Acid - derived hormones
- modified amino acids
| - epinephrine, norepinephrine, triiodothyronine, thryoxine
95
Direct hormones vs. tropic hormones
direct: major effects on non-endocrine tissues
tropic: major effects on other endocrine tissues
96
Anterior Pituitary
release in response to stimulation from hypothalamus
- 4 tropic hormones (FLAT)
- 3 direct hormones (PEG)
97
FLAT PEG
FSH
LH
ACTH
TSH
Prolactin
Endorphines
GH
98
Prolactin (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: milk production
*increased prolactin in psychotic people on dopamine blocker medications
99
Endorphins (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: decreases pain perception, produces euphoria
100
Growth Hormone (GH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Direct hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: grows bone, muscles, and shunts glucose towards this tissues
childhood deficiency = dwarfism
101
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Tropic Hormone
Produced by: anterior pituitary, release stimulated by hypothalamus
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes synthesis and release of triiodothyronine and thyroxine in thyroid
102
Oxytocin (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by:
Triggered by: giving birth
Effect: promotes uterine contractions and milk ejection (+ feedback loop)
103
Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Thyroid Hormone
Produced by: follicular cells, contains iodine
Triggered by:
Effect: increases/maintains basal metabolic rate
104
Cortisone (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type: Steroid Hormone: Glucocorticoid
Produced by: adrenal cortex
Triggered by: ACTH stimulates its release
Effect:
105
Two hormones produced by hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin
106
Adrenal Cortex and three steroid hormone classes
Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone)
Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
Cortical Sex Hormones (androgens and estrogen)
107
Catecholamines (type, produced, trigger, effect)
Type:
Produced by: Adrenal Medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
Triggered by:
Effect: promotes glucogenolysis, increases basal metabolic rate, increase HR, dilate bronchi, alter blood flow
108
Three hormones synthesized in pancreas
Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin
109
Flow of air when breathing
Air in -- nares -- nasal cavity -- pharynx -- larynx -- trachea -- bronchi -- bronchioles
110
pleural
covers the lungs, lines chest wall
visceral pleura: adjacent to lung
parietal pleura: lines chest wall
Intrapleural space: lies between 2 layers, contains thin layer of fluid
111
Pulmonary Arteries
deoxygenated blood to lungs
112
Pulmonary Veins
oxygenated blood out of lungs
113
Adult circulatory pathway
R atrium - R ventricle - Pulmonary artery - lungs - pulmonary veins - L atrium - L ventricle - Aorta - Arteries - Arterioles - Capillaries - Venules - Veins - Vena cava - R atrium
114
Cardio Electrical Conduction Pathway
Sinoatrial (SA) node - Atrioventricular (AV) node - Bundle of His - Purkinje Fibers
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Systole
period during ventricular contraction when AV nodes are closed, blood pumped out of ventricles
116
Diastole
heart is relaxed, Semilunar valves are closed, blood from atria fills in
117
Arteries vs veins
Arteries: thick, muscular, elastic, flow AWAY from heart
Veins: thin, inelastic, flow TOWARDS heart, valves maintain one way flow
118
Three Portal Systems
1. Hepatic Portal System
2. Hypophyseal Portal System
3. Renal Portal System
119
Hepatic Portal System
gut capillary bed to liver capillary bed via the hepatic portal vein
120
Hypophyseal Portal System
Hypothalamus capillary bed to anterior pituitary capillary bed
121
Renal Portal System
glomerulus to vasa recta via efferent arteriole
122
Erythrocytes
Red Blood Cells
| lack mitochondria, nucleus, and organelles to allow hemoglobin
123
Leukocytes
White Blood Cells
| found in bone marrow: granular leukocytes and agranulocytes
124
Granular Leukocytes
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils
| Part of nonspecific immunity
125
Agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes
| Part of specific immunity
126
Thrombocytes
Platelets, required for coagulation
127
Innate Immunity
"Nonspecific Immunity", always active
- noncellular components: nonspecific responses, skin, mucus, tears/saliva, stomach, complement system, interferons
- Cellular components: macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
128
Complement System
Innate Immunity
| -punches holes in cell walls of bacteria, marks them osmotically unstable
129
Interferons
Innate Immunity
-dispersed by virally infected cells
prevent viral replication
130
Macrophages
ingest and present on MHC, secrete cytokines
MHC Class I: in all nucleated cells, display endogenous antigens to cytotoxic T cells
MHC Class II: in all professional antigen cells, display exogenous antigens on helper T cells
131
Dendritic Cells
antigen-presenting cells on skin
132
Natural Killer Cells
attack cells not on MHC molecules (including viral infected and cancer cells)
133
Granulocytes
Neutrophils: ingest bacteria, follow via chemotaxis
Eosinophils: allergen reactions, release histamine
Basophils: allergic reactions, mast cells
134
Two divisions of Adaptive Immune System
Humoral Immunity or Cell Mediated (cytotoxic) Immunity
135
Humoral Immunity
centered on antibody production by plasma cells (activated B cells)
- variable region on an antibody: tip is antigen binding region
- Memory B cells: lie and wait for the second exposure
136
Cell-Mediated (cytotoxic) Immunity
centered around T cells
Helper T cells: respond to MHC-II, coordinates immune sytem
Cytotoxic T cells: respond to MHC-I, kills virally infected cells
Suppressor T cells: tone down immune response, helps with tolerance
Memory T cells: similar to memory B cells
137
Pathway of Digestion
Oral cavity - pharynx - esophagus - stomach - duodenum- small intestine (jejunum, ileum) - large intestine - rectum
138
Key regulators for Ingestion/Digestion
ADH + Aldosterone: promotes thirst
Glucagon + Ghrelin: promotes hunger
Leptin and cholecystokinin: promotes satiety
139
Secretory cells that line the stomach
Mucous Cells: protects stomach
Chief cells: secretes pepsinogen
Parietal cells: secretes Hal and Intrinsic factor (B12 absorption)
G-cells: secretes gastrin (peptide hormone, increases Hcl secretion)
140
Parts of the small intestine
duodenum: primarily chemical digestion
| jejunum and ileum: primarily absorption
141
Parts of the large intestine
cecum: accepts fluid from small intestine
colon: divided into portions
Rectum: stores feces
142
Segments of the nephron
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): bulk reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, soluble vitamins, salt, water
- site of secretion of H, K, ammonia, Urea
2. Descending Limb of Loop of Henle: only permeable water, not salt.
- vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions, countercurrent multiplier
3. Ascending loop of Henle: permeable to salt, impermeable to water
4. Distal convoluted tubule: responsive to aldosterone, salt reabsorption, waste excretion
5. Collecting duct: responsive to aldosterone, ADH
143
Skin Layers
Epidermis then dermis then hypodermis
144
Layers of the Epidermis
```
"Can't Let Gee's Skin Bleed"
stratum-
Corneum
Lucidum
Granulosom
Spinosum
Basale
```
145
Layers of the dermis
Papillary layer
| Reticular Layer
146
Langerhan Cells
special macrophages, antigen presenting at cells on skin
147
Sensory Cells in dermis
```
Merkel Cells: Deep pressure, texture
Free nerve endings
Meissner's corpuscles: light touch
Ruffini endings: stretch
Pacinian Corpuscles: Deep pressure, vibration
```
148
Three Types of Muscles
Skeletal, Smooth, Cardiac
149
Skeletal Muscle
support, movement, propulsion of blood in venous system, thermoregulation
-striated
-voluntary
-polynucleated
Red fibers: slow twitch, oxidative phosphorylation
White fibers: fast-twitch, anaerobic metabolism
150
Smooth Muscle
respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, digestive systems
| -non-striated, involuntary, uninucleate, myogenic activity
151
Cardiac Muscle
Contractile tissue
- striated
- involuntary, uninucleated, myogenic activity, connected via intercalated discs w/ gap junctions
152
Sarcomere
Contractile unit of striated muscle
Think (myosin) + thin (actin) filaments
thin filament (troponin, tropomyosin) regulate activity
153
Sarcomere Structure
I band: only thin
H zone: only thick
A band: entire thick (only part that doesn't change during contraction)
Z line to Z line is one entire sarcomere
154
Muscle contraction pathway
depolarization down sarcolemma -- T tubules are triggered -- Calcium is released -- Calcium binds to troponin -- Tropomyosin shifts -- myosin binding sites are exposed -- actin filaments bind
155
Tendons vs. ligaments
tendons: bone to muscle
ligaments: bone to bone
156
Bone remodeling
Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
PTH: increases Ca and P in blood
Vitamin D: increases production of stronger bone
Calcitonin: increases bone formation, decreases Ca in blood
157
Six types of Mutations (nucleotide changes)
```
"Please, No More Stupid Facebook Invites"
Point Mutations
Nonsense Mutations
Missense Mutations
Silent Mutations
Frameshift Mutations
Insertion/Deletion Mutations
```
158
Point Mutations
sub one nucleotide for another
159
Nonsense Mutations
sub stop codon for another amino acid
160
Missense Mutations
sub one amino acid for another
161
Silent Mutations
no effect on protein
162
Frameshift Mutations
Moving 3 letter reading frame
163
Insertion/deletion Mutations
change reading frame, all downstream amino acids are different
164
Five types of Mutations (chromosomal)
"I Dont Do International Travel"
Inversion Mutations: segment reversed
Deletion Mutations: lrg segment lost
Duplication Mutations: segment is copied multiple times
Insertion Mutations: segment is moved from one chromosome to another
Translocation Mutations: segment is swapped with another on different chromosome
165
Positive Sense-RNA viruses
stays in the cytoplasm, directly translated into proteins by host cell ribosomes
166
negative sense-RNA viruses
require complementary RNNA strand synthesis via RNA Replicase
167
DNA Viruses (post infection)
likely requires RNA polymerase
| enters nucleus -- transcribed into mRNA -- mRNA goes to cytoplasm -- translated into proteins
