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BIOLOGY > Biology-Course 1-The Cell (part three) > Flashcards

Biology-Course 1-The Cell (part three) Flashcards

(123 cards)

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1
Q

function of ATP

A

maintains cellular energy

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2
Q

autotrophs

A

organism that can produce food from external substance to produce ATP

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3
Q

heterotrophs

A

can not make food on their own and need to obtain nutrition from other organisms

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3
Q

example of an autotroph

A

sunlight to plants

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4
Q

example of hetertrophs

A

humans & other animals

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5
Q

NADPH

A

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-
an electron carrier in photosynthesis

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6
Q

what is the structure of ATP

A

carbon backbone with three phosphate groups attached

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7
Q

ADP

A

adenosine phosphate (form of energy that works with ATP)

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8
Q

hydrolysis

A

the process single phosphate group being cleaved off leaving ATP to ADP, releases energy to be used as fuel

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9
Q

Why is ATP used for short term energy as opposed to long term

A

easily removing/recycling phosphate group leaves it unstable best used for short term energy

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10
Q

photosyntheis

A

ability of plants to convert carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen using sunlight, carbon dioxide, water and light from sugar (glucose) and oxygen

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11
Q

what is the chemical structure of photosynthesis

A

6CO2+6H2O –C6H12O6+6O2

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12
Q

what are the two stages during photosynthesis

A

1.light dependent reaction
2.light independent reaction

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13
Q

light dependent reaction in photosynthesis

A

triggered by photons of light striking chlorophyll, producing ATP & NADPH

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14
Q

light independent reaction in photosynthesis

A

uses ATP & NADPH produced in light dependent reaction to convert CO2 into glucose, involves an electron transport chain & the movement of hydrogen ions

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15
Q

photosystems 1&2

A

where light reactions take place in the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts

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16
Q

what is the process of photosystems 2

A

1.energy from sunlight is used to split water which releases two electrons, two hydrogen atoms & one oxygen atom
2when chlorophyll molecule w/in PS2 absorb a photon, the electron attains a higher energy level
3.electron is transferred to another molecule (due to being unstable) creating electron transport chain (ETC)
4.electron flow goes from PS2 to cytochrome B6F to PS1

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17
Q

what is the process of photosystems 1

A

1.because electrons lose energy as they move b/w PS2 and PS1, another photon is absorbed by PS1
2. that energy is transferred to PS1 reaction center and is oxidized forming another electron transport chain
3.sends high-energy electron to reduce NADP+ to NADPH

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18
Q

where does light independent reactions take place

A

stroma of the chloroplasts

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19
Q

describe the calvin cycle (light independent)

A

1.CO2 molecule from atmosphere combines w/ a 5 carbon acceptor molecule called RuBP (ribulose-1,5-biphosphate)
2.the resulting 6 carbon compound is then split into two molecules of the three carbon compound–3-PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid) catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase
3.the 3-PGA molecules are then converted into molecules of simple sugar G3P (glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate) using ATP and NADPH (made in PS2) -this is called reduction
4.in reduction NADPH donates electrons to the 3 phosphoglyceric acid molecules to create glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5.some G3P molecules go to make glucose while others must be recycled to regenerate the 5 carbon RuBP compound that is used to accept new carbon

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20
Q

what are the products from each step of the the calvin cycle

A
  1. each turn of the cycle fixes on molecule of carbon that can be used to make sugar
    2.takes three turns to create one molecule of G3P
    3.after 6 turns , two molecules of G3P can be combined to make glucose molecule
    4.each turn of the cycle also used 3 ATP and 2 NADPH in the process of reducing (adding electrons to) 3-phosphglyceric acid to produce glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate and to regenerate RuBP so a new atom of carbon from CO2 from the air can be accepted
    5.so to produce a single molecule of glucose, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH are consumed
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21
Q

what is cellular respiration

A

sugars in the form of glucose molecules are broken down into carbon dioxide & water (& sometimes oxygen) to produce ATP

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22
Q

chemical structure of cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –6CO2 +6H2O

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23
Q

what are the three prime energy carrying molecules in cell respiration

A

1.ATP
2.Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
3.flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

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24
what are NAD and FAD called when reduced
NADH, FADH2
25
what is the only molecule that can store energy in a ready available form
ATP
26
what are the two types of cellular respiration
1.aerobic respiration 2.anaerobic respiration
27
what is the function of aerobic respiration
uses oxygen as a reactant to produce energy
28
is aerobic or anaerobic respiration more efficient
aerobic, produces more ATP
29
what are the primary products of aerobic respiration
carbon dioxide and water
30
function of anaerobic respiration
turns fuel into energy in the absence of oxygen
31
products of anaerobic respiration
glucose is broken to produce lactic acid or ehtanol
32
where does aerobic cellular respiration take place
cytoplasm & in mitochondria of cell
33
what are the 4 steps of aerobic cellular respiration?
1.glycolysis 2.pyruvate oxidation 3.krebs cycle 4.electron transport chain
34
where does glycolysis take place in aerobic respiration?
cytoplasm
35
function of glycolysis in aerobic cellular respiration
glucose undergoes chemical transformation to convert into two molecules of pyruvate (three carbon molecule) resulting in four ATP molecules
36
what are the products of glycolysis in aerobic respiration
glucose takes two ATP to split glucose, so glycolysis produces a net of two ATP molecules, two molecules of NADH after high energy electrons are transferred to NAD+
37
what percentage of energy does glycolysis release from a breakdown of a single glucose
25%
38
what is the process of pyruvate oxidation in aerobic cellular respiration
1. pyruvate is transported out of the cytoplasm into mitochondria 2.then transformed form a pyruvate to a two carbon molecule (3 to 2) 3. then bound to coenzyme A w/ a product called Acetyl CoA 4. the third carbon combines to form carbon dioxide which is released as a waste product 3.high energy electrons are again accepted by NAD+ and forming NADH
39
when a molecule is reduced it always gains a....
electron
40
where does krebs cycle take place
mitochondria
41
what is the function of krebs cycle
to further breakdown pyruvate
42
what are the steps of krebs cycle
1.enzyme breaks down pyruvate, breaking off carbon dioxide & making Acetyl CoA, in this process two electrons are absorbed by NAD to make NADH and hydrogen ion 2. Acetyl COA goes through series of reactions including addition of citrate molecule 3.at each step diff enzyme breaks down carbon bonds and produces carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 at diff points of cycle 4.midway through the cycle CoA is released to regenerate the starting catalyst
43
what are the products of the cycle of energy (steps 1-3) in aerobic respiration
1. 4 ATP produced ( 2 during glycolysis and 1 during each round of krebs) 2.10 NADH (2 during glycolysis, 2 during pyruvate oxidation, 3 during each round of krebs) 3. 2 FADH2 (1 in each round of krebs)
44
where does the electron transport chain in aerobic cellular respiration take place
mitochondria
45
function of electron transport chain
where majority of ATP is produced from high energy electrons
46
what are the steps of the electron transport chain of aerobic cellular respiration
1.electrons from NADH and FADH2 release energy to move hydrogen ion 2.electrons passed from NADH to first component of chain 3.then continue from component to another until oxygen is the final electron acceptor 4.hydrogen ions pushed into intermembrane space, generating a proton gradient 5.ATP synthase (enzyme in membrane) facilitates movement of hydrogen ions from intermembrane space to matrix 6.this provides energy for formation of ATP and ADP and free phosphate group 7.electrons from transport chain combine w/ oxygen to form water
47
what is the total energy products from aerobic cellular respiration
38 ATP per molecule of glucose (1 from cellular respiration, 2 from glycolysis and krebs cycle and 34 from electron transport chain)
48
what is a form of anaerobic cellular respiration
fermentation
49
what are the steps of fermentation
1.begins w/ glucose breakdown in cytoplasm of cell & generating 2 pyruvate molecules and 2 ATP 2.electrons then released from partial breakdown of glucose are added directly to pyruvate molecule to produce lactic acid
50
what sensation can be felt in the body when fermentation happens
burning sensation in muscles when they don't receive enough oxygen
51
what is the function of cell division
allowing for old/damaged cells to be replaced so organism can continue to function properly
52
can existing cells become bigger
no, rather cell division gives way to new cells
53
what is the cell cycle in cell division
series of events that leads to duplication in DNA in the cell & subsequent division of that DNA & cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells
54
what are the two types of cell division
mitosis & meiosis
55
function of mitosis
replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei, resulting in two cells that are genetically identical and have same number of chromosomes as parent cell
56
what functions of the body is mitosis involved in
growth, maintenance, asexual reproduction
57
function of meiosis
results in four genetically distinct cells that each have half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
58
what body function is meiosis involved in
sexual reproduction only
59
chromosomes
separated units of DNA throughout nucleus consisting of two identical chromatids called sister chromatids
60
sister chromatids
chromatids that are bound together in the middle-centromere- making x shaped chromosome
61
what type of cell division is carried out by mitosis
somatic (body cells)
62
most cell division in the human body is carried out by what type of cell division
mitosis
63
what type of cells does mitosis do not engage in
gametes (reproductive cells)
64
how is mitosis involved in single cell organisms
asexual reproduction
65
describe the mitosis cycle
1. start with parent cell w/ two chromosomes 2.DNA replicated into two sister chromatids 3.cell starts to elongate w/ DNA lines up in the middle w/ cell starting to pinch together 4.cell elongates further, more pronounced pinch, sister chromatids separate and move towards poles 5.division is complete, two daughter cells are present w/ two chromosomes
66
what process takes place that proceeds mitotic phase
interphase (s)
67
function of interphase (s) stage
the cell isn't actively dividing but may be growing & replicating DNA
68
what does interphase take place
copies DNA in nucleus
69
what are the three phases of interphase
1. gap phase 2.S phase 3. second phase
70
gap phase in interphase
cell accumulates the building blocks necessary to duplicate chromosomes
71
S phase in interphase
(synthesis) DNA replication proceeds so it has two copies of its genome and sister chromatids created, centrosome is built
72
mitotic bundle
two centrosomes that are holding together sister chromosomes
73
second gap phase in interphase
cell accumalates necessary materials for movement of chromosomes, duplicating organelles, cell may grow in this phase
74
what tissues of the body is mitosis involved in
lungs, intestines, skin, and other organs
75
what are the steps of the mitotic phase (after interphase)
1.prophase 2. metaphase 3.anaphase 4.telophase
76
prophase in mitosis
spindle fibers emerge & chromosomes condense becoming visible, nucleus disappears, nuclear envelope breaks down
77
metaphase in mitosis
mitotic spindle is fully developed and centrosomes form at opposite poles of the cell, chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate, sister chromatids attach to the spindle fiber
78
anaphase in mitosis
sister chromatids break down, chromosomes (broken down sister chromatids)) move toward poles of the cell, cleavage furrow starts to appear
79
telophase of mitosis
chromosome start to form normal jumbled arrangement, two new nuclei form for each daughter cell, nuclear envelope surrounds chromosomes, mitotic spindle breaks down
80
cytokenesis
division of cytoplasm of parent cell to form two new cells
81
when does cytokenesis take place
anaphase & telophase
82
product after completion of cytokenesis
two new daughter cells, each with their own cell cycle & will later undergo mitosis
83
what will meiosis result in
half the number of chromosomes of their parent cell
84
diploid
cell that has two sets of chromosomes
85
haploid
single set of chromosomes
86
are gametes haploid or diploid cells
haploid
87
what happens to gamete cells when undergo fertilization
haploid cells created to be diploid cell because each contribute to set of chromosomes to new cell
88
two main phases of meiosis
meiosis 1 & 2
89
what doe meiosis 1 result in
halving the number of chromosomes present in parent cell
90
what are the phases of meiosis 1
1. interphase 1 (occurs before meiosis) 2. prophase 1 3. metaphase 1 4. anaphase 1 5 telophase 1
91
prophase 1 of meiosis
1.duplicated chromosomes begin to condense 2.sister chromatids join forming x shape 3. pair up further w/ two other cojoined sister chromatids 4. two homologous chromosomes align at synapsis & cross over genetic material
92
what are homologous chromosomes
two pairs of sister chromatids that align
93
what is a synapsis
aligning of tight pairing of homologous counterparts
94
synapse
two homologous chromosomes joined together
95
what is crossing over ( in relation to meiosis)
the exchange of genetic material by linking at specific points
96
chiasma
the point at which chromosomes cross over
97
recombinant DNA
unique combination of genes
98
metaphase 1
homologous chromosomes that underwent crossing over move to center of cell and align along metaphase plate, spindle fibers attach to chromosomes of each pair
99
anaphase 1 of meiosis
homologous chromosomes pulled apart at metaphase plate & moved to opposite end of cell
100
telophase 1
nuclear membrane reforms & chromosomes begin decondensing, cleavage furrow forms, cytokinesis ensues, completion of product of two haploid daughter cells each containing one chromosome from each homologous pair (each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids
101
what is the product of meiosis 11
generated two more haploid daughter cells from duplicated sister chromatids
102
what are the stages of meiosis 11
1. prophase 11 2. metaphase 11 3.anaphase 11 4.telophase 11
103
prophase 11
chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrosomes begin to move to opp ends of cell, spindle fibers emerge & attach to sister chromatids
104
metaphase 11 in meiosis
chromosomes in each daughter cell line up along metaphase plate, spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids, spindle fibers prepare to reel each sister chromatid to opposite sides of the cell
105
anaphase 11
sister chromatids pulled to opp ends of cell, cleavage furrow forms
106
telophase 11 of meiosis
nuclear membrane reformation & chromosomes become jumbled/less condensed, cleavage furrow forms, cell membranes reform, cytokenesis ensues
107
what is the function of cell cycle regulation
minimize risk of error in replication process
108
what are three checkpoints of cell regulation
G1 G2 M checkpoint
109
G1 checkpoint
first checkpoint, determining whether cell is capable of dividing, once passed cell is committed to dividing
110
what are the checks that are needed to pass G1 checkpoint
size DNA integrity nutrient level molecular signaling
111
G2 of cell regulation
ensures none of the DNA is damaged, replicated properly during interphase
112
what if the cell is found damaged in G2 checkpoint
cell cycle is halted and allows for repairs, if cell is beyond repair cell will undergo apoptysis
113
apoptysis
programmed cell death
114
M checkpoint of cell cycle regulation
(spindle checkpoint) cell assesses whether spindle fibers properly attached
115
what are cell regulators
contribute to signals that determine whether cell should proceed past a checkpoint
116
what are the types of cell regulator
cyclins cyclin-dependent kinasis
117
cyclins
proteins w/ constantly changing concentrations w/in the cell
118
cyclin-dependent kinasis
dependent of specific cyclins to function after cyclin binds to cyclin-dependent kinase it will signal that cell is ready to move onto next stage of cell cycle, only binds if cell is determined to be able to move to next phase of cell cycle
119
definition of cancer in relation to cell division/regulation
when cell division proceeds in an uncontrolled manor or checkpoint is ignored
120
what do cancer cells result in when ignoring checkpoints
become overcrowded that they build on top of each other & form tumors and do not undergo apoptosiss
121
why do large portion of tissue gets removed from mast cell tumors
have spindles that stretch under the tumor so large portion necessary even though may appear small
122

BIOLOGY (4 decks)

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