Biology Final Flashcards
(269 cards)
1
Q
What are the levels of protein organization?
A
- Primary
- Secondary
- Tertiary
- Quaternary
2
Q
What are primary protein structures composed of?
A
Sequence, chain of amino acids
3
Q
What are secondary protein structures composed of?
A
Amino acids linked by hydrogen bonds
- Pleated Sheet
- Alpha Helix
4
Q
What are tertiary protein structures composed of?
A
Alpha helix and beta sheets are held together by weak interactions
5
Q
What are quaternary protein structures composed of?
A
Multiple strands folding and linking together
6
Q
Which is the name of the material and which is the name of the thing?
A
DNA is the material, chromosome is the thing
7
Q
A chromosome is best described as a?
A
Two strands of DNA, one piece of DNA
8
Q
A gene is a?
A
Zone/location on a piece of DNA
9
Q
Mitosis is defined as
A
A division of genetic material
10
Q
What is transcription?
A
Making one RNA copy of one “strand” of DNA
11
Q
How many strands does RNA have?
A
One
12
Q
What are RNA and DNA made of?
A
Covalently bonded nucleotides
13
Q
You likely got the good?
A
Alleles
14
Q
What is phenotype?
A
The part of what you look like that can be inherited and passed on
15
Q
What is a genotype?
A
Unique DNA sequence across all DNA in a normal somatic cell
16
Q
Gene codes for?
A
A character
Examples:
-Having an eyeball
- Having a femur
17
Q
What are alleles?
A
Options of genes
18
Q
What sequence is correct regarding DNA, proteins, and RNA?
A
DNA-RNA-protein
19
Q
How are the two DNA strands held together?
A
Hydrogen bonds
20
Q
How many chromosomes do humans have?
A
46
21
Q
1n=?
A
23
22
Q
What is different about homologous chromosomes?
A
Alleles
23
Q
What are sister chromatids?
A
Pair of duplicated homologous chromosomes connected by proteins
24
Q
What do you start with in meiosis?
A
One diploid (2n) cell
25
What do you end with in meiosis?
Four haploid (1n) cells, gametes
26
What is the independent assortment of chromosomes?
A way to pass different combinations of chromosomes to offspring
27
When does crossing over happen?
Prophase I
28
What will crossing over result in?
Different sets of alleles compared to the beginning
29
What holds pairs of sister chromatids together?
Synaptonemal complex
30
What holds sister chromatids together?
Cohesins
31
What is the same about homologous chromosomes?
The genes and loci
32
Why do we need haploid gametes?
So offspring can be diploid
33
What do you get from each parent?
One chromosome from each homologous pair, one of each gene, one allele per gene
34
Crossing over results in different sets of alleles compared to the beginning. What does the "beginning" look like?
A normal somatic cell
35
What is the correct order of events involving DNA duplication, crossing over, and independent assortment?
DNA duplication-crossing over- independent assortment
36
Who mates with the P2 generation?
They mate with each other, aka F1 mate with P2
37
What is a dominant allele?
The allele expressed in a heterozygote
38
Which generation shows two phenotypes?
P1, F2
39
If there are only two homologous chromosomes, could there be more than two alleles in the population?
Yes
40
What is characteristic of heterozygous chromosomes?
Different alleles on the homologous chromosomes
41
One gene, two alleles. How many genotype and phenotype options?
3, 2
42
How many genes are depicted in a Punnet square?
1
43
How many characters are depicted in a Punnet square?
1
44
Why is there only one letter in each parent box?
Because parents donate gametes
45
How many genotypes does the P1 generation contain?
2, PP and pp
46
How many genotypes does the F2 generation contain?
3
47
What would the P1 genotypes be using R and Y?
Half RRYY and half rryy
48
What would the F1 genotype be using R and Y?
RrYy
49
All F1 phenotypes using R and Y would be?
All yellow and round
50
What is incomplete dominance?
When a dominant alleles doesn't completely mask the effects of a recessive allele
51
What is an example of incomplete dominance?
Tay-Sachs disease
52
What is codominance?
The different alleles are expressed equally
53
What is epistasis?
One gene changes the phenotype that is determined by a different gene
Example:
Protein 2 allows protein 1 to be expressed
54
Mendel's peas had what characteristics?
Mendel's pea genes were each on different chromosomes
55
What does "P" in PP really represent?
The actual nucleotide code on one strand of the double-stranded DNA at a specific location
56
When does the rule of independent assortment occurs?
Meiosis, in Anaphase I
57
What level are we talking about when we say "incomplete dominance" or "codominance"?
Allele
58
Why didn't the proportion of alleles in a population change for Mendel?
Because Mendel made all the decisions
59
If proportions of 2 alleles in a population could change? What are plausible options?
One allele could become 100%, one allele could become 0%, proportions could fluctuate forever, proportions could stay perfectly 50/50 forever
60
What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?
p^2+2pq+q^2
61
What has to be true for the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium to be true?
- No mutations
- Random mating
- No heritable advantages
- Enormous population
- No incoming/outgoing individuals
62
What are mutations?
Physical changes to the genotype mostly done by mistake
63
What is a codon?
Three nucleotides with bases attached
64
What are the type of mutations?
- Point mutations (one nucleotide)
- Insertions (add nucleotides)
- Deletion (remove nucleotides)
- Gene Duplication (olfactory)
65
How likely is no heritable advantages in the actual world?
Zero
66
What is directional selection?
Shifting the population in one direction
67
What is disruptive selection?
Favoring either ends of the population, but not the middle
68
What is stabilizing selection?
Favoring the middle of the population
69
What is an example of a point mutation?
Sickle cell
70
What is fitness?
An idea about future offspring
71
What is founder effect?
Founder of the sub-population has a trait that gets passed down to offspring
72
What is population bottleneck?
Massive population decline due to a catastrophic event
73
What differentiates founder effect from population bottleneck?
Founder effect creates a new sub population
74
What is evolution?
Change in proportion of alleles in a population
75
What is artificial selection?
Humans did
- kill
- keep alive when it would've died
- forced breeding
76
What does adaptive mean?
Changed for the better
77
What is a species?
Organisms that can produce viable offspring
78
What does it mean that a character is homologous?
Came from a recent common ancestor
79
What does it mean when a character is analogous?
Came from a distant common ancestor
80
What is convergent evolution?
Two individuals came to the same evolutionary answer
81
If two species can converge on the same answer, the characters are?
Analogous, solving some problem related to survival, reproduction, fitness
82
What is allopatric speciation?
Two populations of the same species become isolated due to geographic barrier
83
What is sympatric speciation?
Two species live in the same location, but they evolve so they can't breed and are considered different species
84
Two new species. Where is the original?
Original is gone
85
What adapts?
Populations
86
What does viable mean?
Capable of success
87
What is conserved evolution?
Characters that are conserved in the population for no reason
88
What would you call the same species?
Two individuals who produce viable offspring
89
What is a zygote?
A single-cell fertilized egg
90
Can bacteria have species?
Yes, not using the biological species concept
91
What is the biological species concept?
- Have to be able to produce viable offspring
- Have to be near each other
- Have to want to produce offspring
92
Describe the taxonomical system
De' kinky people can often find good sex
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
-Kingdom: Animalia
-Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
93
Evolution favors?
One subset of population
| Today
94
What is a paraphyletic group?
Includes the common ancestor and some, not all, of the ancestor's decendants
95
What is a polyphyletic group?
Groups of species with different common ancestors
96
What is a monophyletic group?
Contains the common ancestor and all descendants
97
A Punnet square has two letters in each of the offspring boxes but has only one letter in each parent box. Why is there only one letter in each parent box?
Because parents each give one homologous chromosome, one allele, one gamete, and one gene to each offspring
98
What is true about Mendel's pea experiments?
Mendel's pea genes were each on different chromosomes
99
Directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection are all?
Natural selection
100
Evolution is a change in proportions of alleles in a population. In response to a major change in the environment, individuals will __ or __ and because of that the population will ___.
Live, die, adapt
101
All speciation events are based on?
Reproductive isolation
102
How old is the earth?
4.6 billion years ago
103
When did single cell prokaryote life first exist?
3.5 billion years ago
104
The difference in mass between a seed and firewood log originates primarily from?
Air
105
What is true about prokaryotes and not about eukaryotes?
Have no meiosis
106
When did atmospheric oxygen first appear?
2.7 billion years ago
107
When did multicellular eukaryotes first exist?
1.2 billion years ago
108
No change in allele frequencies applies to?
Populations, groups of individuals
109
How many years is an eon?
Eon is not an amount of time
110
What is a solution?
Homogeneous mixture in which no two particles of dissolved solute touch, because they are suspended between molecules of solvent
111
How many times did multi-cellular patterns evolve?
5
112
Two samples of fungi filaments (hyphae) 400 meters apart, what is possible?
DNA is identical, both samples are from the same individual, DNA shows a decent amount of variation, hyphae samples are from two individuals
113
What is mycelium?
Net of hyphae
114
What is hyphae?
Fungi filaments
115
Describe the relationship between hyphae and plants
Hyphae brings nutrients to plant roots and in return it receives glucose and related carbohydrates
116
What is mycorrhizae?
Contact between the hyphae and roots
117
What are endomycorrhizae?
Hyphae that grows through the root cell walls
118
What is ectomycorrhizae?
Hyphae that grows between the root cell walls
119
What are arbuscules?
Tree-like structures of endomycorrhizae
120
When did plants move onto land?
470 million years ago
121
When did atmospheric oxygen become biologically relevant on planet earth?
2.5 billion years ago
122
What were some problems plants faced when they came onto land?
- Gravity and body shape
- Dehydration
- Too much sunlight
- Not enough sunlight
- UV
123
How long ago did bacteria and eukaryotes diverge?
3-4 billion years ago
124
How long ago did humans and chimps diverge?
6 million years ago
125
An organism has a mutation that causes it to make a different protein from all others. The mutation made what be different?
A chromosome, a gene, and an allele
126
What is physically between the genes on a chromosome?
More nucleotides
127
What would be different comparing genomes of distantly related species?
String of nucleotides, alleles, genes, and chromosomes
128
What is parsimony?
Grouping taxa in a way that minimizes the number of mutations
129
The human genotype is doing what compared to chimp genotype?
Mutating faster
130
What do transcription factors do?
Determine which genes are copied into RNA
131
How do transcription factors work?
- Transcription factor gene goes through transcription to become RNA by RNA polymerase
- RNA becomes a protein through translation
- These proteins repeat the process
132
What would be different comparing genomes within a species?
Nucleotides and alleles
133
What are homeotic genes?
Genes that direct development/structure
134
Homeotic genes show ___ variation across species?
Zero
135
What are homeoboxes?
180 bp sequence within homeotic genes that are conserved across all eukaryotes, derived from a common multi-celled eukaryote ancestor
136
Asymmetrical cell division results in?
Guard cells which form a stoma
137
What do microfibrils do?
Force the plant to expand upwards when the vacuole expands
138
Growth patterns can be either?
Lineage based
| Position based
139
Animals are ___ based?
Lineage
140
Plants are ___ based?
Position
141
Explain the GLABRA-2 gene
When the gene is expressed, hair doesn't grow
142
Explain flower development genes
- Three genes, A,B,C
- A and C replace eachother
- A = sepal
- A+B= petal
- B+C=stamen
- C=carpel
143
Which flower parts did Mendel remove?
Stamen
144
Explain the process from zygote to gastrula
-Zygote goes through cleavage to become blastula
-Blastula goes through cleavage to for better visualization, inner cell wall = blastocoel
-Blastula goes through an overgrowth of cells in a particular region = gastrulation
-After gastrulation occurs you're looking at a gastrula
-Going from outside to inside:
ectoderm = cell wall of entire thing
blastocoel = middle cell wall
endoderm = smallest cell wall
archenteron = inner cell wall
blastopore = opening, of gastrulation region
-
145
What types of tissue does a diploblastic organism have?
Endo and ectoderm
146
What types of tissue does a triploblastic organism have?
Endo and ectoderm
| Mesoderm
147
What are the three organizations of triploblastic organisms, define them
Coelomate
-Coelom is surrounded by mesoderm tissue
Pseudocoelomate
- Pseudocoelom (big hole) is between mesoderm and endoderm
Acoelomate
-Doesn't have a hole
148
Protostome's blastopores develop into?
A mouth
149
Deuterostome's (humans) blastopores develop into?
An anus
150
Does cellular respiration run the biochemical pathways of photosynthesis in reverse?
No
151
When did life first move onto land?
400-500 million years ago
152
If you cut off the shoot apical meristem what will the plant do?
Grow bushy and stop going up?
153
How do plant cells grow?
From the shoot apical meristem, they grow from the inside, up and out
154
What is the purpose of a stomata?
Regulate gas exchange, allow water regulation, open leaf to the exterior
155
Why would the stomata close?
The plant is drying out
156
A seed is best thought of as a?
An embryo
157
What are cotyledons?
Leaves inside egg
158
What is selection?
Differential survival and reproduction
159
What is translation?
Using RNA to specify amino acids
160
Describe angiosperm reproduction
Male:
- Meiosis
- Multicellular pollen in a tough case makes it to a flowers stigma
- Tube grows to egg
Female:
- Meiosis
- Multi cellular egg
Pollen and egg come together = fertilization
161
What is the main characteristic of monocots?
Straight line leaves
162
What is the main characteristic of dicots?
Reticulated leaves
163
What is co-evolution?
Two species depend on each other for survival
164
What are the forms of asexual reproduction?
- Budding
- Fragmentation
- Haplo-diploid systems
- Parthenogenesis
165
Describe budding
- Most common in organisms with radial symmetry
| - New structures grow out of the existing organism
166
Describe fragmentation
Broken off pieces of an organism grow into a new individual
167
Describe haplo-diploid systems
- Partially asexual
| - Eggs grow into new individuals for one gender
168
Describe parthenogenesis
-Egg grow into a new individual
169
Will parthenogenic offspring from mitosis-formed "eggs" be genetically identical to parents?
Yes
170
Will parthenogenic offspring from meiosis-formed "eggs" be genetically identical to parents?
No
171
What is a hermaphrodite?
Individual that produces both egg and sperm
| -Can be simultaneous or sequential
172
Homeostasis is?
A zone
173
What is asexual reproduction?
No fertilization
174
Describe endocrine signaling
- Long range and specific
| - Cell sends hormones into bloodstream
175
Describe paracrine signaling
- Short range and specific
| - Cell sends signal molecules into immediate environment to activate nearby cells
176
Describe autocrine signaling
- Short range and specific
| - Cell sends signal molecules to activate itself
177
What are the two types of messengers?
- Water soluble (hydrophillic head) insulin
| - Lipid soluble (hydrophobic head) cortisol
178
Where is the receptor for insulin?
Outside the cell
179
Describe synaptic signaling
Neuron sends neurotransmitters to activate another cell
180
Describe neuroendocrine signaling
Neuron sends neurotransmitters into bloodstream
181
The posterior pituitary is part of?
The hypothalamus
182
What are the steps of the thyroid hormone cascade?
Thyroid Hormone Releasing Hormone (TRH) - Thyroid Hormone Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Thyroid Hormone (TH)
183
Where does the thyroid hormone cascade occur?
Anterior pituitary
184
What is basal metabolic rate?
Amount of energy used to be alive
185
What is energy?
Ability to do work
186
What is electronegativity?
The ability to attract negatively charged electrons
187
Highly electronegative molecules will?
Pull electrons from less electronegative ones
188
As an electron moves to highly electronegative molecule, the potential energy?
Decreases
189
How do we think eukaryotes were originally formed?
Membranes folded inwards
190
What are the steps of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
191
How many carbons does Rubisco fix?
3, C3 pathway
192
What is the problem with Rubisco?
Fixes oxygen as well, loses 50% of energy
193
What are the alternatives to the C3 pathway?
C4 pathways, uses PEP
| Stoma open at night, CAM
194
Which two structures are connected by portal vessels?
Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary
195
ADH acts on the kidney tubules. Where does this hormone enter the blood stream?
Posterior pituitary
196
Once an organism gets complicated, does it need to exchange with the environment?
Yes
197
What are the four types of tissue?
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nerves
198
Herbivores have a longer ___ and bigger ___
Large intestine, cecum
199
Do things being absorbed need to cross two membranes? Why?
Cells have volume
200
How many oxygens can hemoglobin hold?
4 molecules
201
How many organ systems are there?
11
202
Muscle is?
Lots of cell types that make a tissue
203
What is the maximum number of cell layers before you have to specialize?
2
204
What are the types of muscle?
- Skeletal
- Smooth
- Cardiac
205
What does a xylem do?
Transport water up
206
What does a phloem do?
Transport sugar
207
What is the casparian strip?
Waxy seal that only allows transport through the cell (symplastic)
208
What is the apoplastic route?
Through the cell wall
209
What is the symplastic route?
Through the cytosol, through the cell
210
How does water move?
Area of low concentration to high concentration
211
Simple diffusion requires how many ATP?
Zero
212
What do arteries carry?
Blood away from the heart
213
Explain the flow of blood through the heart, lungs, and body
- Oxygenated blood flows out of the left ventricle
- Goes through the body and becomes deoxygenated
- Returns to heart through right atrium
- Goes to right ventricle to lungs and becomes oxygenated
- Goes back to heart, re-entering through the left atrium and then to the left ventricle
214
What is a countercurrent system?
- Oxygen and water go opposite directions
| - No equilibrium is established
215
What is osmolarity?
Number of particles in a solution
216
What does hyperosmotic mean?
Having more particles in a solution
217
What does hyposmotic mean?
Having less particles in a solution
218
What is tonicity?
Cell's reaction to the solution it's in
219
What do you find at the dead end of a bronchiole?
Capillaries, alveolus
220
What is osmosis?
Water moving from low to high concentrations
221
What do veins carry?
Carry blood to the heart
222
What has thick muscular walls?
Arteries near the heart
223
What does a counter-current system allow?
Constant transfer with no equilibrium
224
What does hemolymph in sinuses mean?
Blood in open spaces
225
What is etiolation?
Changes due to being in the dark
226
What is de-etiolation?
Changes due to exposure to light
227
What are chryptochromes?
Phytochromes that absorbs blue light
228
Near red phytochrome characteristics?
- Inhibits germination
- Stimulates vertical growth
- Inhibits horizontal growth
229
Far red phytochrome characteristics?
- Continuously destroyed by enzymes
- Stimulates germination
- Inhibits vertical growth
- Stimulated horizontal growth
230
What is found in higher proportion after many hours in the dark?
Near red phytochrome
231
Short night flowering plant will flower in the?
Summer
232
Osmolarity is different from tonicity in that osmolarity?
Describes a solution
233
What is systolic pressure?
Pressure when both ventricles are contracting
234
The sodium-potassium pump is always?
Running
235
Action potential goes?
All the way to the end of the axon
236
Sensory neurons (Afferent) stimulate?
Sensory receptors
237
What are the two types of motor neurons (Efferent)?
Autonomic and somatic
238
Somatic neurons control?
Skeletal muscle
239
What are the two types of autonomic neurons?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
240
Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons control?
Smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
241
Describe the action potential of muscle
- ACh is released into the synaptic cleft
- ACh will bind to ligand-gated sodium channels which will depolarize the cell and cause an action potential
- The potential will go down the T-tubules, reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum and depolarize the membrane causing the voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane to open
- The calcium ions will go into the cytosol, bind to the binding sites on the troponin complexes, part of the tropomyosin fibers
- Troponin changes shape, freeing the myosin-binding sites
- The myosin heads bind to the mysoin-binding sites on the actin causing a contraction
242
How do we know what determines a long-night flowering plant's signal to flower?
Near red light in the middle of the night will inhibit flowering
Far red light in the middle of the night will allow flowering
243
Voltage-gated Na+ channels can be?
- Open
- Closed
- Inactive
244
Voltage-gated K+ channels can be?
- Open
| - Closed
245
Describe the process of an action potential
- Start at -70, NaK pumps are constantly running, both channels are closed
- Voltage gated Na channels open, depolarizing the cell
- Voltage gated K channels open at the same time that Na channels close
- Na channels reset to original position while K is still open
- Resting state, voltage Na and K are closed, Na time based is open
246
What are the two types of ACh receptors?
Nicotinic
| Muscarinic
247
What is a good definition of population?
Defined groups of anything alive
248
What is carrying capacity (K)?
Max number of individuals who can live in a place forever without running out of anything
249
What are the most reasonable possibilities when a population grows beyond K?
Could go a little above and slowly return to K
| Could go way above, then massive crash below K
250
What is survivorship (Lx)?
Number of babies who live to age x
251
What is fecundity (Mx)?
Number of offspring produced by an average organism of age x during that breeding period
252
What does the summation of Mx stand for?
The number of offspring from individual who lives to be maximum age
253
What is realized fecundity (LxMx)?
The number of offspring from an individual who lives an average life
254
What is the sum of realized fecundity?
Net reproductive rate
255
Electrons flow toward the most electronegative molecule except?
When energy is being stored, in photosynthesis
256
What does skeletal muscle do or have?
Contract, elongate, have action potential, have voltage gated Na channels, have voltage gated Ca channels
257
What is competitive exclusion?
Two species competing for the same thing, one will win and exclude the other
258
Competition is a (??) interaction
-/-
259
What is mullerian mimicry?
Mimic is actually poisonous
260
What is batesian mimicry?
Mimic is not poisonous
261
Batesian mimicry is a (??) interaction
+/-
262
What is a niche?
An ecological space
263
Describe the organization of body plans
Cells - Tissues - Organs - Organ Systems
264
What do smaller niches allow?
More species
265
What are dominant species?
Most common or one with the most biomass
266
What are keystones species?
One with the most impact on others
267
How much energy transfers to the next level of the food chain?
10%
268
What is the only molecule in our atmosphere that interacts with photons?
CO2
269
How much fresh air makes it to alveoli on an average inhale?
350 mL
