biology_final-a_20201120193249 Flashcards
(512 cards)
1
Q
U1: What things are needed to be classified as living?
A
a. some sort of metabolic processes to carry out internal activities.b. some sort of instructions, such as DNA.c. the ability to grow and reproduce.
2
Q
U1: What two things are needed to grow and prosper as a lineage?
A
1.) Ability to grow and reproduce2.) Ability to evolve.
3
Q
U1: What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
A
Hypo- An idea back with some scientific reasoning that needs further testing.Theory- “fact” supported with scientific evidence.
4
Q
U1: What is the difference between the independent and dependent variable?
A
The independent variable dictates the result of the dependent variable.
5
Q
U1: Who were the founders of natural selection?
A
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
6
Q
U1: What was Bishop Willam Paley’s theory?
A
(watch maker) Organisms are complex and well-adapted because they were made by God
7
Q
U1: Who was the founder of Catastrophism and what does it state?
A
Georges Cuvier: God plus action’s plus catastrophic events have lead the earth to the way it is.
8
Q
U1: What does the fossil record suggest?Which Theory challenges the fossil record?
A
Multiple layers of fossilized species show that they are increasingly similar.Catastrophism.
9
Q
U1: What is Charles Lyell known for?
A
Uniformitarianism/Gradualism: slow and gradual changes to the earth is the reason the earth is the way it is.
10
Q
U1: What and Who developed Lamarckian evolution?
A
Jean Baptist Lamarck, believed that organisms could spontaneously adapt and evolve to fit the needs of the environment,
11
Q
U1: What was Thomas Malthus theory?
A
Populations tend to increase over timeIncreases in food production cannot keep pace with growth
12
Q
U1: What is required for evolution of natural selection to take place?
A
a. Individuals must vary in their phenotypes.b. Differences in phenotypes must have a genetic basis.c. Differences in phenotypes must have consequences for fitness.
13
Q
U1: An increase in an organisms fitness is directly proportional to its ability’s…?
A
Reproduce.
14
Q
U1: Explain the differences between hard and soft selection:
A
Hard= the desirable traits live 100% of the timeSoft= Higher likelihood of the desirable traits living but not a grantee.
15
Q
U1: What is Evolution?
A
Change in a species genetic frequencies.
16
Q
U1: What is Natural Selection?
A
A mechanism of evolution resulting from individuals with different traits showing differential fitness.
17
Q
U1: What is an adaptation?
A
An increase in fitness due to evolution, or A trait that improves the fitness of an individual
18
Q
U1: Genotype vs Phenotype?
A
Genetic makeup vs. Physical traits as a result of the genetic make up.
19
Q
U1: Single Locus vs. Multi Locus?
A
1 gene controls the value of a trait vs. multiple genes influencing a trait.
20
Q
U1: At what level does evolution occur at, population or individual?
A
populations.
21
Q
U1: What is phenotypic selection?
A
Process resulting in the specific traits increasing fitness levels.
22
Q
U1: t/f Variation is a result of mutation?
A
True.
23
Q
U1: t/f evolution can anticipate the needs of the species.
A
False, it cannot.
24
Q
U1: what are the differences between macro and micro evolution?
A
Macro- major evolutionary changes that occur over long periods of time.Micro-small scale evolutionary changes (within a single population).
25
U1: What are the four means by which evolution can occur through?
Genetic driftGene flowMutationNatural selection
26
U1: comparative vs. experimental approach?
Comparative- Compare populations or species from naturally-differing environmentsExperimental-Actively manipulate the populations or environments to create differences
27
U1: What is a common garden experiment?
Bring population samples into lab and raise in the same conditions
28
U1: What is Rifampin?
Binds to RNA polymerase and interferes with transcription-Bacteriostatic antibiotic.
29
U1: What being a is the trends of a graph showing arifampin treatment period and the last 14 weeks being rifampin-free
steady for 6 weeks and then a gradually decline.
30
U1: what is the ropB gene?
If mutation occurs on this gene the cell is resistant to Rifampin.
31
U1: What is a transitional form?
forms of species in-between the initial and current.
32
U1: What forms of evidence show transitional forms?
•The fossil record•Comparative studies of extant species
33
U1: t/f Are related species found closer in proximity, and if so why?
T•Global distribution patterns•Island biogeography
34
U1: What is Wallace's line?
Separates region where marsupials dominate from regions where placentals dominate.
35
U1: What are Homologous Traits?
similar structures that evolved from a common ancestor.
36
U1: What are Vestigial Structures?
A structure that lacks any function but shows evidence of a common ancestor.
37
U1: What is Mendelian Inheritance?
Each gene has two copies, in each individual, on homologous chromosomes. Each homologous chromosome can have a different allele
38
U1: Describe the Hardy-Weinberg Equations:
p+q=1
| p^2+2pq+q^2
39
U1: What are the assumptions associated with Hardy-Weinberg?
```
No natural selection occurring
No genetic drift occurring
No gene flow occurring
No new mutations
Mating is random
```
40
U1: Why is Inbreeding bad?
It increases the frequency of individuals with homozygous deleterious alleles in the population.
41
U1: Disruptive selection?
Favors both ends of distribution
42
U1: Balancing selection?
Favors less-common form
43
U1: Directional selection?
Favors one end of distribution
44
U1: Stabilizing selection?
Favors intermediate values
45
U1: What limits evolutionary response to natural selection?
Genetic- Limited genetic variation
Chemical -The rate and nature of biochemical processes
Physical-The physical characteristics of biological materials
Historical- So new traits must evolve from old ones
46
U1: Why is genetic inbreeding bad?
increase of deleterious genes.
47
U1: Increasing adaptation in one way may reduce it in another, Trade-offs may involve:
Morphological characters
Physiological characters
Biochemical characters
Energy allocation
48
U1: what is Assortative mating?
Mate chosen based on similarity or dissimilarity to self
49
U1: what is Inbreeding?
Mate chosen based on close familial relationship
50
U1: what is sexual selection?
Particular traits are more generally more attractive to mates.
51
U1: what are the sub categories of natural selection?
Sexual selection,
52
U1: what is sexual dimorphism?
Differences in phenotype of sexes. (usually large and displayful)
53
U1: what is the fundamental asymmetry of sex?
#NAME?
54
U1: what is intersexual selection?
Females may choose mates on the basis of physical characteristics. These may signal male genetic quality resources or parental care provided by males.
55
U1: what is an example of female sexual selection?
Traits that improve performance, or a display of an ability (nest/den building and hunting).
56
U1: what is intrasexual selection?
Male vs. Male competition, resulting in the winner being able to mate with the female.
57
U1: what are the means of evolution?Describe the four.
Natural selection: Most favorable traits for the conditions are selected for.
Gene flow: Alters allele frequency & tend to reduces genetic variability
Gene drift: Alters allele frequency & tends to increase genetic variability
Mutation: Increases genetic variability
58
U1: what is the average for mutations per individual?
1
59
U1: what are four important points regarding mutations?
Most mutations with an effect on fitness are deleterious
A small number are beneficial
Some mutations are neutral
Mutations are random, not directed
60
U1: what is the bottle neck effect?
Populations that temporarily drop in size are likely to experience drift.
61
U1: what is founder's effect?
Drift can also occur when a small group founds a new population Known as founder effect.
62
U1: Gene flow results from movement of alleles from blank to blank population.
source to sink
63
U1: what are the major approaches to identifying species, and what do they do?
Morphological species-Based on phenotype of individuals.Biological species- All individuals that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring.Phylogenetic species- Groups with sufficient separation on the phylogenetic tree are considered species.
64
U1: who is the Father of binomial taxonomy?
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)Linnean taxonomy
65
U1: what is convergent evolution?
Two distantly related species that converged independently, but have similar body plans.
66
U1: what two mechanism's can speciation occur under?-Describe the two of them.
Allopatric- Speciation through physical separation of populations
Sympatric- Speciation through genetic divergence within a population
67
U1: by what can allopatric speciation occur through?
Dispersal/Colonization- separated movement of individuals to new location Vicariance event: Appearance of physical barrier
68
U1: how does sympatric speciation occur? Describe both ways:
* Disruptive selection- Low fitness of intermediate phenotypes leads to two sub-groups within a population
* Polyploid mutants- possible reproductive isolation is typical, due to an incompatible number of gametes
69
U1: what is fusion?
Two species diverged, but little evolution took place so when these groups reproduced your left with the original species.
70
U1: what are the possible out comes of hybridization?
•Formation of persistent hybrid zone•Formation of new species through hybridization•Reinforcement of trend towards speciation
71
U1: describe a stable hybrid zone:what is made necessary for this to occur?
-Two separate species mate in an area to create a new species. Thus giving you an additional species.-Hybrids have as high or higher fitness than parents in some locations,
72
U1: what is reinforcement?
when two species produce a hybrid species that is less fit than both parent species.
73
U1: what is a phylogeny?
indicates the evolutionary relationship among different groups
74
U1: what is the difference between monophyletic paraphyletic and synapomorphy groups?
Mono- consists of all the species sharing a single ancestral population
Para- is missing some species
Synapomorphy-(“uniting form”) is a shared, derived character
75
U1: what is a homology?
If groups share a trait that is the same due to common ancestry.
76
U1: what is a homoplasy?
If groups share a trait that is not due to common ancestry
77
U1: what is adaptive radiation?what causes adaptive radiation?
-Rapid and extensive diversification of an evolutionary group.-Open ecological niches & Key adaptation
78
U1: what is mass extinction?what is mass extinction caused by?
#NAME?
79
U1: major instances occurred from what?
Cambrian explosion
80
U1: what was the result of the Cambrian explosion?
•External and internal skeletons•Cephalization•Major sensory structures•Locomotory appendages
81
U1: describe the following from the Cambrian explosion: Doushantuo fossils Ediacaran fossils Burgess Shale fossils
Doushantuo fossils- From ancient deposits, displaying embryos.
Ediacaran fossils- Australian deposits, showing more organized structure
Burgess Shale fossils- Canadian deposits showing complex structures and most major animal groups present.
82
U1: what was the Permian-Triassic Extinction?what was likely the cause and how do we know this ?
-“Mother of mass extinctions”96% of marine species. All eurypterids (sea scorpions), trilobites .70% of terrestrial species-Vulcanism/ Impact event/Massive climate change
83
U1: what was The Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction?
Massive asteroid impact ~65mya = Loss of 75% of terrestrial and marine species in complex pattern.
84
U1: how do we know The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction was likely a result of a large asteroid shower?
Iridium is present at high concentration inrocks formed 65 million years ago
85
U1: During what eon/era did the birds first appear?
Menzoic
86
U1: t/f is this in the correct sequential order: Precambrian, Mesozoic, Paleozoic ?
false, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic
87
U1: describe the genotypes of the Hb (sub s) and Hb (sub a) .
#NAME?
88
U2: What do organisms need to be able to do?
Intake, process(excrete), reproduce, move, coordinate and control .
89
U2: What is diffusion?
Substances in solution tend to move down their concentration gradient
90
U2: What is Osmosis?
the movement of water down its concentration gradient
91
U2: Define the following terms: Osmolarity, Hyperosmotic, Hypoosmotic, Isosmotic.
Osmolarity-is determined by the combined concentration of all solutes in a solution. Hyperosmotic- means that a solution has a higher concentration than another.Hypoosmotic- means that a solution has a lower concentration than another.Isosmotic-means two solutions have the same osmolarity
92
U2: What is the result of the following cell states: Hyperosmotic, Hypoosmotic, Isosmotic.
Hyperosmotic: Net flow of water out of cell; cell shrinksHypoosmotic: Net flow of water into cell; cell swells or even burstsIsosmotic: No net flow fluctuation
93
U2: What is water potential and what is it determined by?What do these have in common?
#NAME?
94
U2: what are these linked with: Matrix, solute, pressure (potentials)?
Matrix Potential- cohesion and adhesion
Solute Potential-Osmotic pressure
Pressure Potential- Hydrostatic pressure
95
U2: Fick’s Law can be used to predict rates of diffusion except in cases with particles that are ?
Charged
96
U2: Describe the Phospholipid bilayer:
Hydrophilic and lipophobic head and Hydrophobic and lipophilic tail
97
U2: What is anther word for the use channel proteins?
Permeation
98
U2: What is anther word for diffusion facilitated Carrier Protein.)
Facilitated Diffusion.
99
U2: Uniport vs. Antiport
Uni- active transport transport in one direction
| anti- moves in two directions and uses an electrochemical gradient.
100
U2: What is secondary active transport?
When a ion moves back into the cell via a symporter and the created electrochemical gradient.
101
U2: What does primary active transport require?
Atp via an Atp pump
102
U2: What moves through a phospholipid bilayer easiest?
small and chargeless molecules move through the easiest.
103
U2: t/f channel proteins move particles against their electrochemical gradient?
F, carrier proteins
104
U2: Who is the Father of modern animal physiology?
Claude Bernard
105
U2: What does ECF consist of?
Blood and interstitial fluid
106
U2: What are the geometric consequences of getting bigger?
#NAME?
107
U2: How to calculate volume and SA
-SA: 6 x Length squared-
| V: L cubic
108
U2: What does increased surface complexity lead to?
Increased area for diffusion.
109
U2: What do plant cells contain?
Cell wall, vacuoles and chloroplast.
110
U2: What is the plant cell wall composed of?
Mostly cellulose
111
U2: What is the difference between the primary and secondary cell wall?
Primary- Young and growing, it is composed of pectin.Secondary- rigid and old cells, it is composed of lignin
112
U2: What is the layer located in between the primary and secondary cell wall?
Lamella.
113
U2: What are the openings in primary wall cells?
#NAME?
114
U2: What does the central vacuole?
Contains ( Enzymes, salts, pigments, alkaloids, other chemicals) used to create turgor pressure.
115
U2: roots vs shoots
roots- Below ground, they serve to uptake water and nutrients as well as anchor the plant.shoots- Above ground (stems, leaves, flowers) , they serve to harvest light, exchange gas, make sugars, and reproduce.
116
U2: Describe the function of lateral roots, root hairs, root cap:
Lateral roots- branch off to increase root reachRoot hairs- absorb water/nutrientsRoot cap-protects growing tip
117
U2: what is the purpose of pneumatophores?
provide gas exchange
118
U2: What is the leaf?
Sunlight harvesting organ
119
U2: What process does building a plant body require?
Growth Differentiation: cells assume a particular identity and function.
120
U2: Where do new cells arrive?
Meristems
121
U2: new meristematic cells are (blank)
Totipotent
122
U2: Apical vs Lateral meristems:
- produce primary tissues and root tips (length){RAM} {Sam}
| - Produce secondary tissues (width){vascular and cork cambium}
123
U2: How do cells expand?
-loosen's up-Generates turgor pressure
124
U2: How do cells generate turgor pressure?
1. transport solute into vacuoles2. water moves in via osmosis
125
U2: What is intermediate growth?
Plant can continue to grow new tissue.
126
U2: What are three types plant tissues?
dermal- Epidermis of the plantVascular-
xylem (water conduction) and phloem (food conduction)ground-
Bulk of plant, designated for storage.
127
U2: What is the purpose of cuticle?
Prevent water loss and pathogen entry
128
U2: What do the stomata do and what do they have?
Pours that allow gas exchange, and they have guard cells.
129
U2: What do the guard cells do?
use turgor pressure to open and close stomata.
130
U2: What do trichomes do?
Hair-like projections to protect and defend.
131
U2: What are the major types of ground tissue?
Parenchyma-Collenchyma-Sclerenchyma-
132
U2: What are the two types of conducting cells in xylem and what do they do?
Tracheid's- found in all vascular plants
| Vessel elements- in angiosperms and gnetophytes only.
133
U2: What are the two types of conducting cells in phloem and what do they do?
Sieve tube elements- transport vessels
| Companion cells- metabolic support for STE's
134
U2: what does secondary growth do?
Produces wood and length.
135
U2: in growth which vascular tissue comes first?
#NAME?
136
U2: How does water move through xylem of the plant?
Via capillary action and transpiration.
137
U2: What shows the lowest water potential when a plant is undergoing transpiration?
The leaves
138
U2: How high can transpiration can lift water up?
100 meters
139
U2: What is transpiration?
Evaporation from mesophyll surfaces in leaves.
140
U2: Why does water movement occur?
1. Transpiration lowers water potential2. Cohesion-tension pulls water up xylem3. Water is taken up by roots
141
U2: What does increased sunlight do to transpiration and stomata?
increased transpiration rates and increased stomata openings.
142
U2: How is water loss reduced by?
#NAME?
143
U2: What is translocation?
Movement of sugars by bulk flow in sap.
144
U2: What is phloem loading?
1. move sugars in the phloem2. generate high water potential in phloem
145
U2: What is phloem unloading?
1. Move sugars out of phloem 2. Generate low water potential in phloem
146
U2: what is the source of plants biological materials?
Co2
147
U2: inorganic vs organic soil.
Inorganic: rocksOrganic: (humus) consisting of dead organismal tissue and animal waste.
148
U2: What is topsoil?
Crucial for healthy and stable plant community.
149
U2: what is the zone of maturation?
the site where new root hairs absorb the most nutrient uptake.
150
U2: What and why does nitrogen fixation occur?
#NAME?
151
U2: What is symbiotic bacteria?
Bacteria like ( Rhizobia and legumes) that has a mutualistic relationship with plants.
152
U2: What are nodules?
Infected root tissues that bacteria grow into.
153
U2: What do clay heavy soils hold?
Lots of nutrients
154
U2: What allows for nutrient uptake in plants?
Proton pumps create an electrochemical gradient, drawing in nutrients.
155
U2: what is transduction in plants?
Receptor cells convert sensory information into chemical messages.
156
U2: What are the hormones involved with Growth, Growth ending, stress respones:
GP: Auxin, GibberellinsGE: ethyleneSR: abscisic acid
157
U2: What tropism?
Reaction of growth in response to tropism
158
U2: What is morphogenesis:
None directional growth response to a stimulus.
159
U2:Phototrophism, Thigmotropism, Gravitropsim:
#NAME?
160
U2: Thigmomorphogenesis:
change in shape due to mechanical perturbation.
161
U2: What is the Krummholz effect?
Growing in a direction to response to a wind.
162
U2: Nastic movements?
A non directional response
163
U2: Thigmonastic:
Movement is a response to touch
164
U2: Nyctinasty:
Movements based on time of day
165
U2: What is the coleoptile?
The first part of the shoot to emerge in a monocot seedling. Where the light is sensed.
166
U2: How does the coleoptile communicate its message to the rest of the plant?
Via water soluble chemical.
167
U2: Why is there a greater growth on the shady side of plants?
Increased auxin on that side via lateral transport.
168
U2: What is the difference between hypersensitive response and systemic acquired resistance:
Hypersensitive: Localized defense acting against pathogens, and is triggered by Hr. Systemic acquired response: Whole plant defense activated via MeSA.
169
U2: What is the herbivore resistance in plants?
#NAME?
170
U2: What are volatile chemical messengers?
Gasses released by plants alerting them that there is potential danger nearby.
171
U2: how is light detected in plants?
phototrophins, or PHOT1 and PHOT2 receptors
172
U2: How do plants perceive gravity?
amyloplasts
173
U2: Plants that are fully parasitic often lack (blank)?
well-developed leaves.
174
U2: what do statoliths do?
control the distribution of auxin
175
U2: What do dry roots release?
Abscisic acid (promotes stomatal closing)
176
U2: What is the alternation of generations?
In plants both haploid and diploid stages occur in multicellular forms.
177
U2: Describe the process of sporophyte to sporophyte.
Sporophyte (2n) - spores (n) - Gametophyte (n) - gametes (n via mitosis) - zygote - sporophyte.
178
U2: name a sporophyte and gametophyte dominated life cycle.
Spor- flowering plantGameto- moss
179
U2: sexual vs asexual reproduction:
Sexual: sporo dominated and alternation of generationsAsexual: clonal copies of parents.
180
U2: How do flowers sexually reproduce?
angiosperms
181
U2: describe the function of the following: Sepals, petals,
Sepal- Outer-most modified leaves.Petals- Used to draw in pollinators
182
U2: What is and what does the stamen consist of?
#NAME?
183
U2:What is and what does the carpels consist of?
Stigma: Receives pollenStyle: Elevate stigmaOvary: Contains ovules
184
U2: What do the carpels fuse together to make?
The pistil
185
U2: Describe pollen development?
Microsporocytes(2n) - Microspores - Pollen
186
U2: in angiosperms what does the ovule become?
fruit
187
U2: What is scarification?
The physical abuse required to germinate.
188
U2: Bee pollinated?
Bright colors (not red)
189
U2: Fly pollinated?
dark and foul in oder
190
U2: Moth pollinated
Opens at night and usually white
191
U2: hummingbird pollinated?
Long floral tube, usually red orange or yellow
192
U2: wind pollinated?
Pollen is lightweight and not sticky
193
Who thermoregulates?
Mammals and birds.
194
What are the 6 heat transfers discussed in class that can result in a gain or loss of heat?
Conduction, convection, radiation
195
Conduction? (example of thermoregulation)
Transfer of Ke through physical contant.
196
Convection? (example of thermoregulation)
Transfer of Ke through fluid flow
197
Radiation? (example of thermoregulation)
Transfer of Ke through electromagnetic radiation.
198
How can heat be lost? (example of thermoregulation)
Evaporation
199
How can heat be gained? (example of thermoregulation)
Metabolism
200
Metabolism?
biochemical processes that are carried out; resulting in heat as a biproduct.
201
What is Fick's equation for heat transfer?
F=Ka(T1-T2/D)
202
What is physiological regulation? (who uses this?)
Actively regulating your internal state based on external conditions. (mammals and birds)
203
Advantages/disadvantages of physiological regulation?
Can tolerate a wider variety of conditions, better active range in crazy conditions ://: Energetically expensive, must have evolved regulatory system.
204
What is Environmental conformation?
You staying within environmental norms. Ex: your internal temp is the same as the outside.
205
Advantages/Disadvantages to Environmental conformation?
More energy affordable ://: not as well suited for a particular environment.
206
What is behavioral regulation?
Using environmental heat to keep your internal state warm.
207
Advantages/Disadvantages to behavioral regulation?
Lower energy cost, can regulate body temp at certain times of the day ://: ability to thermoregulate depends on environmental conditions.
208
What are the two types of major heat sources in animals?
Endotherms + Ectotherms.
209
What is the difference between Endotherms + Ectotherms?
Ecto-don't produce adequate body heat. (uses environment)Endo- Does (regulates themselves)
210
How much more energy do mammals use then reptiles?
Roughly ten times.
211
what's the difference between Homeotherms + Heterotherms
Homo-have fairly constant body temperatureHetero- does not
212
What are adaptations to increase efflux?
Reduce Sa, increase fat(insulation), trap still air (fur or feathers)
213
What are methods for decreasing temperature differential?
torpor or hibernation to reduce overall body temperature• Use countercurrent exchange-to reduce heat of blood in extremities
214
What is osmoregulation?
The regulation of the concentration of ECF and ICF
215
What things does osmoregulation control?
Total water content (ecf), Overall osmolarity (ecf), concentration of specific solutes, ions, and nitrogenous waste (ecf).
216
T/F: if the regulation of ecf and icf is good so will the regulation within the cell?
TRUE
217
Excretion?
Unwanted substances removed from the ecf
218
Secretion?
anything leaving the ecf
219
Absorption?
moving substances in ecf.
220
Reabsorption?
anything returning to the ecf
221
Filtration?
forcing solution through a biological sieve
222
What are the end products of protein metabolism?
Nitrogenous waste.
223
whats the most efficient nitrogenous waste?
Ammonia- High solubuilty and toxcitiy: low energy loss.
224
what instances require animals to osmoregulate?
differing concentration then their external conditions
225
what's an osmoconformer?
an organism (shark) who is isosmotic with the Environment (sea).
226
Shark:
most primative case study, NaCl influx at gills, use rectal gland to get rid of NaCl, no active consumption of water
227
Marine fish vs freshwater fish:
Ff: Challenged by ion efflux and water influx, pee a lot a lot and dont drink/// Mf: challenged by ion influx and water efflux, small amounts of pee, drink water.
228
Terrestrials osmoregulation struggles are?
water loss, sufficient ions, elimination of nitrogenous waste.
229
secretion vs filtration system:
secretion gets rid of the components all together, while filtration collects the unnecessary things.
230
in terrestrials where is keratin found and what is it's purpose.
Keratin is found in the epidermal layers, and reduces the levels of evaporation.
231
can kidneys produce hyperosmotic waste?
yes
232
What is the main waste product in humans?
Urea
233
Nephron layers: Outer? Inner
Cortex, Medulla.
234
Whats the concentration of the ecf in the cortex vs medulla.
300 mOsm vs 1400 mOsm
235
Decrease in water in the body does what to ADH?
Increases in: ADH, density of aquaporins, water reabsoption, urine concentration
236
Increase in water in the does what to ADH?
Decreases ADH, density of aquaporins, water reabsorption, urine concentration
237
What does the mammalian kidney do?
regulates ecf volume indirectly by directly adjusting urine volume. Also, helps in osmoregulation .
238
The mammalian kidney is a blank?
Filtration reabsorption system.
239
The dry the conditions the blank the medulla, the blank concentrated your urine is. why is your urine this way?
Deeper, more. To help aid in water retention (mice.)
240
Insects have a blank membrane composed of blank.
highly, wax and chitin, aiding in water retention
241
insects limit the air through them to prevent..
evaporation
242
What are Malpighian tubules? (insects)
tubes that extract water from the feces and urine.
243
How does a filtration based reabsorption system work.
water and small amounts of solutes leave the ecf via bulk flow and useful substances are then reabsorbed into the ecf.
244
What's an example of a filtration based reabsorption system?
Mammalian kidney.
245
Describe the transition of blood to urine.
blood flow runs in a tubule right next to the nephron. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus. Filtered blood moves to the bowmen's capsule. The filtered substance moves to the proximal tubule. The filtered product moves to the loop of Henele. The filtered product moves to the distal tubule. The final step is into the collection duct.
246
what happens at the proximal tubule.
Ions are secreted and reabsorbed.
247
what happens through the first half of The Loop of Henele?
the concentration increases as the filtered substances comes through. This drives water out of the loop via osmosis-aquaporins.
248
what happens through the second half of The Loop of Henele?
concentration starts to decrease and ions are drivein out via channel proteins.
249
What happens at the distal tubule?
As the substance continues to move up the loop of henele, the concentration starts to decrease to its normal levels. This drives out ions via carrier proteins.
250
What happens at the collecting duct.
controls the final concentration of urine.
251
All these processes above are creating:
Primary urine.
252
describe the flow of gas exchange in terrestrials.
air from environment enters-this goes through the respiratory surfaces- O2 moves through the circulation system via the blood- O2 enters the mitochondria- biproduct of cellular respiration, CO2 is released- CO2 travels through the circulatory system- CO2 is released at the ventilatory surfaces.
253
How are gases move in and out of the respiratory surfaces including the mitochondria?
diffusion.
254
How does circulatory system and the outside environment move products?
Bulk flow.
255
t/f bulk flow is the pressure driving force?
T
256
what things improve blood flow?
high pressure differential, low viscosity, increased diameter of tubules.
257
what is the equation of partial pressure.
#NAME?
258
what drives diffusion.
differences is in torr.
259
Partial pressure of a dissolved gas is affected by its?
solubility.
260
Partial pressure of a gas bound to a carrier is influenced by?
carrier affinity
261
characteristics of water for respiration:
Low O₂ content – less than 8 ml dissolved O₂ / liter water•Lower in seawater and with increasing temperature•High density and viscosity•Smaller coefficient for diffusion•High specific heat
262
characteristics of air for respiration:
High O₂ content – over 200 ml O₂ / liter air at sea level•Low density and viscosity – takes little energy to move•Greater coefficient for diffusion – faster diffusion, all else equal•Low specific heat – doesn’t absorb or offload much heat•Normally desiccating – causes water loss
263
In simple gills ventilation is ?
passive
264
complex gills:
Greatly increased surface area•Active, pumping ventilation providing one-way flow•Counter-current exchange between water and blood
265
most terrestrials have blank respiratory systems ?
invaginated
266
what does an active pumps do?
Moves water over gills to get maximal O2 absorption from the water.
267
describe counter current exchange:
blood and water flow moves in opposite directions
268
how do complex gills differ from simple gills?
increased SA, active pumps, counter current exchange,
269
what has trachea and how do they work?
Series of tubes (tracheae) that carry gases directly to and from tissues. Found in insects, myriapods and some arachnids
270
Spiracles?
(opening of tracheae) can be closed to reduce water loss
271
How do vertebrates use negative pressure ventilation systems?
ith an expansion of the thoracic cavity generating a drop in pressure
272
How do amphibians use negative pressure ventilation systems?
with an expansion of the thoracic cavity generating a drop in pressure
273
t/f most vertebrates use tidal flow systems while Avian use flow-through system?
T
274
Series of branching tubes:
Trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli
275
when we inhale our diaphragm moves?
down
276
Avian gas exchange occurs at?
Gas exchange occurs at parabronchi
277
what does a true circulatory system consist of?
•Blood vessels •One or more hearts to generate hydrostatic pressure •Blood (or hemolymph) that moves through vessels
278
Circulating blood can serve to:
Move respiratory gases•Move nutrients and wastes•Distribute hormones and immune-system cells•Distribute heat•Provide hydrostatic pressure
279
Open vs. Closed circulatory system:
Vessels empty into sinus// Blood stays in vessels throughout transit
280
Chambered pumps:
seen in humans, have a 1 way valve system, and can deal with a greater amount of pressure.
281
Peristaltic pumps:
Part of blood vessels. Limited to lower pressures.
282
Left side of the heart:
bigger and pumps blood to the body (systematically)
283
Right side of the heart:
Pumps to the pulmonary system:
284
The mammalian heart has _ atria and _ ventricles
2,2
285
Atrioventricular (AV) valves:
allow blood from atria to ventricles
286
Semilunar (SL) valves:
allow blood from ventricles to arteries
287
The contraction of the heart is known as?
Systolic
288
The relaxed stage of the heart is?
diastole
289
sinoatrial node does what?
Acts as the pacemaker of the heart, using electrical signals to start constractions.
290
describe blood flow through the heart?
Blood enters the atrium form a vein- when enough pressure builds the av valve opens- blood flows through to the ventricle- once the pressure in ventricle is greater than the atrium the av closes- the Sl valve opens- blood is ejected from the artieres.
291
a contraction would move blood from?
the atrium to the ventricle.
292
Blood leaves lungs and enters tissues with?
104 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 40 torr
293
Blood leaves tissues and enters lungs with ?
PO₂ ≈ 40 torr and PCO₂ ≈ 46 torr
294
Hemoglobin and hemocyanin are?
O2 carries.
295
t/f Each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four O₂ molecules and are found in the rbc's.
T
296
Most CO₂ that enters the blood is converted into:
bicarbonate
297
do to the reaction to form bicarbonate, The ECF becomes?
more acidic as CO2 levels increase.
298
how do we decrease CO2 levels?
increase ventilation.
299
When does O2 influence ventilation?
If P-O2 drops below 60 torr
300
The relationship between PO₂ and the amount of O₂ bound to Hb is...
nonlinear
301
When does O2 load on the hemaglobin?
at the lungs.
302
when does O2 unload off the hemaglobin?
At the tissue.
303
what feedback loops does the cns work in?
Negative feedback loops
304
What does the nervous system consist of?
Neurons and Glial cells.
305
what does the cns consist of?
Brain, Brain stem, Spinal cord
306
What are the divisions of Pns:
Afferent and Efferent.
307
What is the difference between the afferent and efferent division of the PNS?
afferent carriers information to the CNSefferent carriers signals to the effectors
308
Somatic nervous system vs. Autonomic nervous system
Autonomic- Smooth muscles (involuntary actions)Somatic- skeletal muscles (voluntary actions)
309
sympathetic vs parasympathetic nervous syestems?
Para-rest and digestsym- fight or flight
310
describe the neuron and its pieces?
reciving dendrite: receives ap from neighboring dendrite.Soma: cell body and surrounds the nucleusnucleus: houses dna and information to make proteinsaxon: carriers the apaxon terminal: where neurotransmitters are released.
311
action potential moves from (blank) to (blank).
Presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron.
312
what are the three general types of neurons?
Sensory(afferent)-no “upstream” neural connectionMotor(efferent)-“downstream” connection to non-neural effectorsinterneuron- connect only to other neurons
313
(t/f) All cells have membrane potentials (Vm)
t
314
what causes membrane potential?
unequal movement of ions across the membrane.
315
the resting potential inside the cell is postive?
false it's negative
316
What determines the membrane potential?
K⁺ and Na⁺
317
what are the differences in concentration of the ICF and ECF?
ICF: High K⁺ and low Na⁺ ECF: High Na⁺ and low K⁺
318
Greater net efflux than influx of ⊕ ions negative VmGreater net influx than efflux of ⊕ ions positive Vmt/f
T
319
Permeability of membrane to each ion depends on presence of ?
channel proteins
320
what causes an ap to occur?
if membrane potential rises above threshold potential
321
depolarization phase vs. repolarization phase.
de: increase in membrane potentialre: decreases in membrane potential
322
voltage gated channels are caused by?
changes in Vm
323
What's the difference between Na and K VG?
Na- opens quickly after the vm exceeds the threshold and closes after a short delay.K- channels open slowly when Vm exceeds threshold. They close again when Vm drops below threshold.
324
How do ap's affect other adjacent areas?
Region near initial AP is brought above threshold voltageVG Na⁺ channels activatedAP occurs in this new regionThis new AP brings another region above threshold
325
The Domino affect of ap's is referred to as?
propagation.
326
propagation can only be a forward affecter because?
refractory period.
327
what is the junction where differing neurons communicate?
synapse.
328
How is information transmitted between neurons?
Neurotransmitters.
329
Nt's can either blank or blank
excite or inhibit.
330
where are neurotransmitter's stored?
synaptic vesicles
331
How are Nt's released?
Ca protein channels opening, which signals the synaptic vesicles to move down to the main cell membrane and bind to the receptors .
332
t/f receptors can be ion channels or can activate separate charges.
t
333
what channels open and close for excitatory NT's?
Na open and K closes
334
what channels open and close for inhibitory NT's
K opens and Na closes.
335
The membrane potential in the postsynaptic neuron is called?
postsynaptic potential
336
Depolarizing events in the postsynaptic neuron are called?
excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
337
Hyperpolarizing events in the postsynaptic neuron are called?
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
338
Ap's only cause EPSP's?
False, they can cause EPSP's and IPSP's, which if happen near one anther in time and location sum together.
339
neuronal integration:
the summation of the presynaptic nueron being transferred to the post synaptic nueron.
340
Frequency of APs in postsynaptic neuron =
pain index
341
What are the two signals in the of the endocrine system?
Neural signals and hormones
342
The Nervous systems messages are typically...?
Faster and to a specific target.
343
Hormonal messages are typically...?
Slower and more broadly targeted
344
What are the classes of Chemical signals?
Neurotransmitters: Released by nuerons and travle a short distance.Autocrine agents: cells that releases the effector chemicalParacrine agents: diffusion to reach neighboring cells.
345
Neurohormones vs. Hormones?
both travel in the blood stream. nuero is released by NT's and hormones are released by glands.
346
What are the major endocrine glands?
Hypothalamus / Posterior pituitary, Anterior pituitary, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid gland, Adrenal gland Pancreas, Gonads
347
Endocrine vs. Exocrine?
endo- releases hormonesExo- releases fluids, like sweat, milk, saliva
348
What does the anterior pituitary gland serve for?
Produces hormones that control many systems, including the release of other hormones.Controlled by hormones released by the hypothalamus (neurohormones).Metabolism, reproduction, growth.
349
What does the hypothalamus consist of?
hypothalamic, anterior and posterior pituitary gland.
350
what does the posterior pituitary gland do?
Its hormones are neurohormonesADH – controls water reabsorption in collecting ductsOxytocin – promotes contractions during labor and milk “letdown”
351
What are acute responses?
sudden danger, resulting in fight or flight.driven by epinephrine.
352
What is the result of long term stress?
Increased cortisol, assisting in sustained increases in activity and alertness.
353
What is the order of actions carried out by long term stress?
Hypothalamus(^crh)- Anterior pituitary(^acth)-adrenal gland (cortisol^).
354
What is the order of actions carried out by acute stress?
Perception of dangerCNS(directs to sns)-Adrenal gland (epinephrine)
355
What can thyroid hormones serve to do?
Metabolic rate (rate of energy use by cells)CNS development and activityProtein synthesisGrowthIn amphibians promote metamorphosis.
356
Describe the thyroid axis in mammals?
decreased body temp- hypothalamus response(TRH) release-Anterior pituitary (TSH)- Thyroid gland (thyroid hormone)
357
Levels of “downstream” hormones have blank effect on upstream hormones
Negative
358
Hyporesponsiveness ?
too few hormone receptors
359
what is leptin?
helps control the body’s energy stores:•Leptin is produced by fats cells – more fat stores leads to higher leptin levels•Influences appetite and metabolic rate•In most vertebrates, helps maintain “normal” fat reserves
360
T/F fat storages, fat cells and leptin are inversely related?
False, they are directly related.
361
increase in leptin does what to appetite and metabolism.
decrease appetite and increase metabolism.
362
metamorphosis in insects involves two hormones:
•Juvenile hormone (JH)•Ecdysone (from “ecdysis”, or molting)
363
How do most animals reproduce?
sexually: Haploid gametes fuse to form diploid offspring
364
What are the mechanisms of Asexual reproduction?
•Budding / fission / breakage•Parthenogenesis (development from single egg)
365
T/F in asexual reproduction Offspring are clones of parent?
T
366
How do gametes form?
haploid cells that animals form by meiosis of diploid cells
367
How many cells do Males produce from each diploid spermatogonium?
4
368
Females produce only (blank #) egg (ovum) from each diploid oogonium during oogenesis.
1
369
External fertilization:
occurs only in aquatic/wet environments
370
Spawning:
involves selective, localized fertilization – e.g., frogs
371
Broadcast fertilization:
involves non-selective, population-wide simultaneous release of gametes – e.g., sea urchins
372
T/F :Internal fertilization occurs in both terrestrial and aquatic environments
T
373
spermatophore?
Collection of sperm that a female can sit on and become pregnant.
374
Cloaca?
which acts as the common cavity where the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
375
Oviparous?
external development of offspring.
376
Viviparous?
development is internal and the embryo
377
Ovoviviparous?
development is internal but within a yolk-filled egg
378
Males produce mainly?
Testosterone
379
Females produce mainly?
Estrogen
380
What are primary male characteristics?
genitalia
381
Secondary male characteristics?
•Pubic and axillary hair•Beard and general increase in body hair•Increased muscle mass
382
What induces secondary male characteristics?
Increased testosterone from puberty
383
Males are constantly producing?
Gametes
384
Describe the male pathway during puberty?
Hypothalmus(GnRH)-Anterior pituitary(FSH & LH)-Testes-Testosterone (Spermatogenesis)
385
Erection?
•Vasodilation of arterioles increases influx of blood•Compression of venules by increased pressure decreases efflux
386
Where semen created?
ejaculatory duct immediately prior to ejaculation
387
How does Sperm arrive at the ejaculatory duct?
vas deferens
388
Primary female characteristic is?
genitalia
389
Secondary female characteristic are?
•Pubic and axillary hair•Breast development•Widening of pelvis•Fat deposition around hip area
390
Describe the female pathway during puberty?
Hypothalmus(GnRH)-Anterior pituitary(FSH & LH)-Ovaries- estrogen and progestogen production-oogenesis
391
How long is the average menstrual cycle?
28 days
392
What is released during ovulation?
oocyte
393
How long is the Follicular phase, and what occurs within this phase?
1-14, oocyte develops and increases in size as estrogen production increases.
394
When is and how long is ovulation? What happens in ovulation
ovulation is 1 day, day 14. Oocyte released from follicle (and ovary)due to spike in luteinizing hormone
395
What day is Luteal phase from? What happens in this phase.
15-28. Follicle turns into corpus luteum, which produces estrogen and progesterone
396
If no implantation occurs what happens?
corpus luteum degenerates during days 25-28
397
what happens from Days 6-28?
Growth and maintenance of uterine lining
398
What happens to the uterine lining during days 6-28?
First, endometrium proliferates due to increasing estrogen.After ovulation, endometrium secretes nutrients due to high estrogen and progesterone
399
What happens during days 1-5?
Menstruations.
400
T/F, If no implantation, endometrium is shed – menstruation
T
401
How many days can the oocyte survive after ovulation?
2-Jan
402
How many days can sperm survive, and how many days does it take to reach the oviduct?
2-3 days survival, an 1 day to travel to the oviduct.
403
What is the window for fertilization?
2-3 days before to 1-2 days after ovulation
404
How long does implantation of a developing embryo take?
one week
405
What is the placenta?
Advanced structure for the embryo and fetus to exchange nutrients via blood.
406
What makes the placenta prime for diffusion?
Increased SA and a thin membrane.
407
What two hormones are required for a successful pregnancy?
Increased levels of estrogen and progestogen.
408
What do progestogen and estrogen do to assist with pregnancy?
Maintain the endometrial layer•Promote development of uterine muscle•Inhibit contractions of uterus prior to full term•Promote development of breasts
409
What results in the mothers loss of nutrients and hormones at birth?
Loss of the placenta.
410
What drives labor.
Uterine contractions.
411
What hormone excites uterine contractions?
oxytocin (from posterior pituitary)
412
Indigestion?
taking in food.
413
Digestion?
Breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
414
Absorption?
Nutrient absorption and uptake.
415
Elimination:
Disposal of waste.
416
What macronutrients are being absorbed?
simple and complex(starch) carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
417
What chemicals break down viable macronutrients?
Amylase= carbsLipase= lipidsProteins=pepsin.
418
What is the absorptive state? what activity occurs within the absorptive state?
nutrients entering blood from GI tract.•Anabolic as well as catabolic activity•Amino acids used to make proteins•Energy stored
419
Where does the post absorptive state occur?
nutrients not entering from GI tract.•Mainly catabolic activity•Energy released from stores
420
Calories within Carbs (stored with water molecules) , Lipids, Proteins?
Carbs(stored with water molecules)- 1.5 kcalProteins-4.5 kcalLipids-9 kcal
421
How is most energy stored?
as fat, 80,000 – 120,000 kcal in humans
422
Describe the actions within the absorptive state.
Large influx of fats and carbs-CNS in turn takes glucose as a source of fuel- glycogen is stored in the liver- Fat and glucose are stored as fats
423
Describe the actions within post absorptive state?
1-main source of fuel is fat released from storages.2- Then liver is responsible for glucose (breaks down glycogen)3- Fats are used as fuel
424
What does insulin do:
Secreted by the pancreas. promotes absorption.
425
What does glucagon do:
Secreted by the pancreas. Promotes post absorptive state.
426
what does an increase in glucose absorption in the GI track do?
^blood glucose-Pancreases- ^insulin secretion
427
What does increased insulin lead to?
^, glucose use, glucose storage
428
What does decreased insulin lead to?
decreased blood glucose- pancreas ( decreased insulin & increased glucagon)-
429
( decreased insulin & increased glucagon) leads to...
decreased glucose use and increased release^ fat release
430
What is diabetes mellitus?
High blood glucose levels due to lack of normal absorptive response.
431
Type I diabetes:
(“juvenile-onset”)
432
Type II diabetes:
•Response to insulin is diminished – insulin levels are high•Associated with inactivity and obesity•Utility of insulin injections is limited – lifestyle change is more effective•Normally appears later in life (“adult-onset”)
433
U4: what determines a biome?
Temperature and rainfall patterns
434
U4: Describe tropical wet rain forests.
Constantly warm and lots of rainfall in various amounts based on the time of year.
435
U4: Subtropical deserts?
The temperature is usually high, but it varies.
| The rainfall is low.
436
U4: Temperate Grasslands?
Moderately warm and varying in temperature.
437
U4: Temperate Forest?
Average temperature that is moderately changing. and lower levels of rainfall.
438
U4: Boreal forest?
Low temperature the is not consistent.
| Low levels of annual precipitation.
439
U4: Arctic Tundra:
Very cold temperature that is not stable.
| Very low annual rain fall.
440
U4: What is an Estuaries?
Mix of salt water and freshwater.
| Where rivers meet oceans.
441
U4: What is true of rivers and streams as elevation increases.
colder and higher in oxygenation.
442
U4: Wetland?
Shallow freshwater habitats with emergent plants.
443
U4: How does latitude affect temperature.
They are inversely related. This is because increased latitude leads decreased solar radiation.
444
U4: Differing surface angel's to the sun as a result of changing season leads to (blank)
variability in temperature.
445
U4: Describe the trends of rainfall.
- High at equator
- Low at 30 deg N and S
- High at 60 deg N and S
- Low at poles
446
U4: Describe the Hadley cell.
Hadley Cells are the low-latitude overturning circulations that have air rising at the equator and air sinking at roughly 30° latitude. They are responsible for the trade winds in the Tropics and control low-latitude weather patterns.
447
U4: what is the effect of rain shadow on mountain ranges?
Strong effects on rainfall and leads to a wet and dry side.
448
U4: What are the key factors of aquatic environments?
Light, nutrient, and oxygen availability.
449
U4: What two zones can light be defined by aquatic systems?
photic zone (light) and aphotic zone (dark)
450
U4: What does an Upwelling due for coastal regions?
Provide high nutrient availability by the movement caused from wind and the earths rotation, which brings in nutrients from the depths to the shore(ish).
451
U4: which animal population is prone to innate behaviors. ( Not a species or genius, but type ;)
less intelligent animals
| Ex: that dumb ass digger wasps.
452
U4: What is fixed learning behavior?
A behavior that is learned early on
453
U4: What is a fixed action pattern?
Behavior that is carried out the same way every time.
| Ex: that dumb ass digger wasps.
454
U4: Fixed learned behavior?
Requires intelligence and a capacity to learn a skill. Ex: humans have the ability's to speak, but it is a matter of being taught a language.
455
U4: Schooling and its purpose?
Traveling in groups to reduce the risk of predation.
456
U4: What is mimicry?
Share morphological similarities with an organism that may be dangerous or poisonous.
( Think a bank robber using a fake gun)
457
U4: What is the difference between sexual selection and pre-zygotic isolation.
S.S- selecting a sexual partner based on phenotypic traits of foraging/manufacturing skills.
P.Z- Keeps individuals mating within their own species.
458
U4: What is the general rule of the Optimal foraging theory?
- Organisms will evolve foraging strategies that will maximize their species fitness.
- E.X. think of the prairie dogs with hawk fly-over. The result was Prairie were more active on the side that lacked the fly over unless there was enough food present.
- Risk vs. Reward
459
U4: What is altruistic behavior?
A behavior carried out by an individual that appears to reduce fitness, but may improve the fitness of other organisms within that species.
-Like the alarm call in prairie dogs.
460
U4: What is Kin selection?
Kin selection should occur according to Hamilton’s rule, which calculates genetic relatedness:
½ alleles shared with parents and siblings,
¼ alleles shared with grandparents, aunts and uncles, nieces and nephews
⅛ alleles shared with cousins
461
U4: What is reciprocal altruism?
Nesting groups consist of two parents plus up to eight other adults
Some adults are unrelated to the parents, but still help feed young and defend the territory of the group
462
U4: What are the two life strategies discussed in class?
Live fast and die young.
| Slow and steady wins the race.
463
U4: What is fecundity?
of offspring a female produces.
464
U4: In regards to the survivorship continuum describe the differences between Type 1, 2, 3?
1- young and middle aged individuals have a good chance at survival.
2- There is a linear decline in survival rate as time continues.
3- Young die at a rather intense rate, but if make it past a given age your likely-hood of survival increases gradually.
465
U4: What are the differences between R and K species?
R- Associated with unstable or temporary environments. Strategy: produce large number of offspring quickly
K- Associated with stable or “climax” environments. Strategy: delay reproduction and produce small numbers of “expensive” offspring.
466
U4: What is a meta-population?
A population of organisms may be broken up among distinct locations.
467
U4: What are extinction rates affected by?
Population size
Patch size & quality
Environmental variability
468
U4: What are recolonization rates affected by?
Patch size & quality
Distance and population size of other patches
Intervening environment
Species mobility
469
U4: What are the four types of interdependence that communities show?
Competition: Different species use the same resources. Result: Lower fitness for both species
Consumption: One species eats, or absorbs nutrients from, another. Predation, herbivory, fungivory, parasitism. Result: Increases consumer’s fitness, decreases consumer’s fitness
Mutualism: Species interactions are mutually beneficial Result: Increased fitness for both species
Commensalism: One species benefits, with no effect on the other. Result: Increased fitness for one species, no change for the other
470
U4: What does a niche overlap lead to?
Decrease in each organisms overall fitness.
471
U4: What is the difference between a fundamental niche and a realized niche?
Fundamental niche: Niche seen in the absence of competitors
| Realized niche: Portion of the niche used given competition
472
U4: What are the exponential and logistic growth equations?
Logistic- N0+Rmax(k-No/k)
| Exponential- N1= N0+rN0
473
U4: What are density independent factors?
Things that vary overtime: seasonal temp changes, drying of ponds, natural disasters,
474
U4: What is the difference between abiotic and biotic factors?
Biotic- predator's, food avlibuilty, diseases, parasites
| Abiotic-Environmental/climate things.
475
U4: Overlap of species leads to (blank) and enough of (blank #1) leads to (blank blank)
Character displacement.
| niche differentiation.
476
U4: What is the difference between Inducible defense and Constitutive defense.
Constitutive defense: Always present
| Inducible defense: Produced only in response to a consumer
477
U4: What are the potential results of a coevolutionary arms race?
1. Consumers evolve traits that increase their efficiency in “prey capture”
2. Consumed evolve traits that make them unpalatable or elusive
3. Selection on consumers for traits that counter the consumed species’ adaptation
4. Etc.
478
U4: What can communities be affected by?
* Keystone species
* Disturbance and succession
* Biogeography
479
U4: What is a disturbance?
Event that removes biomass (organisms) from the community
480
U4: What are predictable disturbances referred to as?
disturbance regime.
481
U4: Succession?
A predictable progression of species replacements in a region
482
U4: What is the differnece between Primary Succession and Secondary Succession?
Primary Succession: Succession pattern after a disturbance removes both organisms and soil E.g., glacier, major flood, volcanic eruption, landslide
Secondary Succession: Succession pattern after a disturbance removes some or all of the organism, but not soi lE.g., fire, tree fall
483
U4: pioneer species?
| Are the R/H selected?
The first species to invade a habit
| R selected
484
U4: What are examples of early-mid-late succession communities?
weeds-shrubs-tree's
485
U4: How are Community diversity and latitude related to one-anther?
Inversely.
486
U4: Describe the following Latitudinal gradients: Productivity, Temperature, Age and Intermediate disturbance hypothesis's.
* Productivity hypothesis: ↑ photosynthesis & nutrient availability → ↑ biomass → ↑ niches
* Temperature hypothesis:↑ mean T & ↓ Δ T → ↓ extinctions and ↑speciation
* Age hypothesis:↑ time since primary succession → ↑ speciation
* Intermediate disturbance hypothesis:Generally stable regions with local disturbances allow both r- and K-selected species
487
U4: Theory of island biogeography?
Species richness ∝ Rate of immigration − Rate of extinction
For islands, three major factors influence these rates:
•Current species richness
•Island size
•Distance from mainland
488
U4: How are immigration rates and # of species related?
Inversely
489
U4: How are extinction rates and number of species related?
Directly
490
U4: Describe the Shannon index equation?
of species/community = X * Ln = Y * X.
491
U4: Energy moves from what to what?
Producers to consumers/decomposers.
492
U4: Organisms that obtain their energy from the same type of source occupy..?
The same trophic level.
493
U4: Producers are...
| Consumers/decomposers are...
- autotrophs
| - heterotrophs
494
U4: What is net primary productivity?
Energy invested in growth or offspring
495
U4: As tropic levels increase the amount of available bio mass does what?
decreases
496
U4: What is bioaccumulation?
Chemicals that are ingested like the PCB's, DDT, Mercury
497
U4: Describe the water cycle
water is evaporated from the ocean -wind- to land (where precipitation occurs)- evaporated and transpired.
498
U4: What are major abiotic carbon sources?
•Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂)•Oceanic bicarbonate ion (HCO₃⁻)
499
U4: How is Atmospheric CO₂ fixed and created?
- Photosynthesis
| - Metabolism
500
U4: How is Atmospheric CO₂ is also added?
by burning fossil and non-fossil fuels
501
U4: What are green house gases?
Heat the sun emits and the earth gains as IR radiation
502
U4: Major greenhouse gases?
Water
CO2
Methane
503
U4: The average temperature is on the rise as a result of?
Green house gases increasing in production
504
U4: In addition to temperature climate change can also effect?
Weather patterns
505
U4: What are the effects of climate change?
Physical:•Increased temperatures•Changing precipitation patterns•Increased violent weather•Increased sea level•Loss of glaciers and sea ice•Increased acidification of oceans
Biological:•Changes in geographic distributions•Reduced population size•Extinctions
506
Which of these patterns would be seen in a freshwater bony fish?
Passive influx of water and efflux of ions
507
In the proximal tubule of the mammalian nephron, we see mainly?
active transport of useful solutes across the epithelium, with water following due to osmotic differences.
508
In the collecting ducts of their kidneys, a person in who is over-hydrated should see?
relatively little reabsorption of water as the result of low levels of ADH.
509
In most vertebrates (including humans), an overly-high level of thyroid hormones in the blood should result in
inhibition of the release of TRH and TSH.
510
The follicle of the ovary is?
the structure that helps support the egg while it develops.
511
During the menstrual cycle, levels of estrogen are lowest
days 1-7.
512
In the intestines, the digestion of fats involves biles salts, which help overcome the challenge presented by the fact that the fat molecules are..?
hydrophobic.
