final Flashcards
(192 cards)
1
Q
U1: What things are needed to be classified as living?
A
a. some sort of metabolic processes to carry out internal activities.
b. some sort of instructions, such as DNA.
c. the ability to grow and reproduce.
2
Q
U1: What two things are needed to grow and prosper as a lineage?
A
- ) Ability to grow and reproduce
2. ) Ability to evolve.
3
Q
U1: What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
A
Hypo- An idea back with some scientific reasoning that needs further testing.
Theory- “fact” supported with scientific evidence.
4
Q
U1: What is the difference between the independent and dependent variable?
A
The independent variable dictates the result of the dependent variable.
5
Q
U1: Who were the founders of natural selection?
A
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
6
Q
U1: What was Bishop Willam Paley’s theory?
A
(watch maker) Organisms are complex and well-adapted because they were made by God
7
Q
U1: Who was the founder of Catastrophism and what does it state?
A
Georges Cuvier: God plus action’s plus catastrophic events have lead the earth to the way it is.
8
Q
U1: What does the fossil record suggest?
Which Theory challenges the fossil record?
A
Multiple layers of fossilized species show that they are increasingly similar.
Catastrophism.
9
Q
U1: What is Charles Lyell known for?
A
Uniformitarianism/Gradualism: slow and gradual changes to the earth is the reason the earth is the way it is.
10
Q
U1: What and Who developed Lamarckian evolution?
A
Jean Baptist Lamarck, believed that organisms could spontaneously adapt and evolve to fit the needs of the environment,
11
Q
U1: What was Thomas Malthus theory?
A
Populations tend to increase over time Increases in food production cannot keep pace with growth
12
Q
U1: What is required for evolution of natural selection to take place?
A
a. Individuals must vary in their phenotypes.
b. Differences in phenotypes must have a genetic basis.
c. Differences in phenotypes must have consequences for fitness.
13
Q
U1: An increase in an organisms fitness is directly proportional to its ability’s…?
A
Reproduce.
14
Q
U1: Explain the differences between hard and soft selection:
A
Hard= the desirable traits live 100% of the time Soft= Higher likelihood of the desirable traits living but not a grantee.
15
Q
U1: What is Evolution?
A
Change in a species genetic frequencies.
16
Q
U1: What is Natural Selection?
A
A mechanism of evolution resulting from individuals with different traits showing differential fitness.
17
Q
U1: What is an adaptation?
A
An increase in fitness due to evolution, or A trait that improves the fitness of an individual
18
Q
U1: Genotype vs Phenotype?
A
Genetic makeup vs. Physical traits as a result of the genetic make up.
19
Q
U1: Single Locus vs. Multi Locus?
A
1 gene controls the value of a trait vs. multiple genes influencing a trait.
20
Q
U1: At what level does evolution occur at, population or individual?
A
populations.
21
Q
U1: What is phenotypic selection?
A
Process resulting in the specific traits increasing fitness levels.
22
Q
U1: t/f Variation is a result of mutation?
A
True.
23
Q
U1: t/f evolution can anticipate the needs of the species.
A
False, it cannot.
24
Q
U1: what are the differences between macro and micro evolution?
A
Macro- major evolutionary changes that occur over long periods of time.
Micro-small scale evolutionary changes (within a single population).
25
U1: What are the four means by which evolution can occur through?
Genetic drift
Gene flow
Mutation
Natural selection
26
U1: comparative vs. experimental approach?
Comparative- Compare populations or species from naturally-differing environments
Experimental-Actively manipulate the populations or environments to create differences
27
U1: What is a common garden experiment?
Bring population samples into lab and raise in the same conditions
28
U1: What is Rifampin?
Binds to RNA polymerase and interferes with transcription-Bacteriostatic antibiotic.
29
U1: What being a is the trends of a graph showing a
| rifampin treatment period and the last 14 weeks being rifampin-free
steady for 6 weeks and then a gradually decline.
30
U1: what is the ropB gene?
If mutation occurs on this gene the cell is resistant to Rifampin.
31
U1: What is a transitional form?
forms of species in-between the initial and current.
32
U1: What forms of evidence show transitional forms?
* The fossil record
| * Comparative studies of extant species
33
U1: t/f Are related species found closer in proximity, and if so why?
T
•Global distribution patterns
•Island biogeography
34
U1: What is Wallace's line?
Separates region where marsupials dominate from regions where placentals dominate.
35
U1: What are Homologous Traits?
similar structures that evolved from a common ancestor.
36
U1: What are Vestigial Structures?
A structure that lacks any function but shows evidence of a common ancestor.
37
U1: What is Mendelian Inheritance?
Each gene has two copies, in each individual, on homologous chromosomes. Each homologous chromosome can have a different allele
38
U1: Describe the Hardy-Weinberg Equations:
p+q=1
| p^2+2pq+q^2
39
U1: What are the assumptions associated with Hardy-Weinberg?
```
No natural selection occurring
No genetic drift occurring
No gene flow occurring
No new mutations
Mating is random
```
40
U1: Why is Inbreeding bad?
It increases the frequency of individuals with homozygous deleterious alleles in
the population.
41
U1: Disruptive selection?
Favors both ends of distribution
42
U1: Balancing selection?
Favors less-common form
43
U1: Directional selection?
Favors one end of distribution
44
U1: Stabilizing selection?
Favors intermediate values
45
U1: What limits evolutionary response to natural selection?
Genetic- Limited genetic variation
Chemical -The rate and nature of biochemical processes
Physical-The physical characteristics of biological materials
Historical- So new traits must evolve from old ones
46
U1: Why is genetic inbreeding bad?
increase of deleterious genes.
47
U1: Increasing adaptation in one way may reduce it in another, Trade-offs may involve:
Morphological characters
Physiological characters
Biochemical characters
Energy allocation
48
U1: what is Assortative mating?
Mate chosen based on similarity or dissimilarity to self
49
U1: what is Inbreeding?
Mate chosen based on close familial relationship
50
U1: what is sexual selection?
Particular traits are more generally more attractive to mates.
51
U1: what are the sub categories of natural selection?
Sexual selection,
52
U1: what is sexual dimorphism?
Differences in phenotype of sexes. (usually large and displayful)
53
U1: what is the fundamental asymmetry of sex?
- females usually invest more in offspring than males do
54
U1: what is intersexual selection?
Females may choose mates on the basis of physical characteristics.
These may signal male genetic quality resources or parental care provided by males.
55
U1: what is an example of female sexual selection?
Traits that improve performance, or a display of an ability (nest/den building and hunting).
56
U1: what is intrasexual selection?
Male vs. Male competition, resulting in the winner being able to mate with the female.
57
U1: what are the means of evolution?
| Describe the four.
Natural selection: Most favorable traits for the conditions are selected for.
Gene flow: Alters allele frequency & tend to reduces genetic variability
Gene drift: Alters allele frequency & tends to increase genetic variability
Mutation: Increases genetic variability
58
U1: what is the average for mutations per individual?
1
59
U1: what are four important points regarding mutations?
Most mutations with an effect on fitness are deleterious
A small number are beneficial
Some mutations are neutral
Mutations are random, not directed
60
U1: what is the bottle neck effect?
Populations that temporarily drop in size are likely to experience drift.
61
U1: what is founder's effect?
Drift can also occur when a small group founds a new population Known as founder effect.
62
U1: Gene flow results from movement of alleles from blank to blank population.
source to sink
63
U1: what are the major approaches to identifying species, and what do they do?
Morphological species-Based on phenotype of individuals.
Biological species- All individuals that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Phylogenetic species- Groups with sufficient separation on the phylogenetic tree are considered species.
64
U1: who is the Father of binomial taxonomy?
```
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
Linnean taxonomy
```
65
U1: what is convergent evolution?
Two distantly related species that converged independently, but have similar body plans.
66
U1: what two mechanism's can speciation occur under?
| -Describe the two of them.
Allopatric- Speciation through physical separation of populations
Sympatric- Speciation through genetic divergence within a population
67
U1: by what can allopatric speciation occur through?
Dispersal/Colonization- separated movement of individuals to new location
Vicariance event: Appearance of physical barrier
68
U1: how does sympatric speciation occur?
| Describe both ways:
* Disruptive selection- Low fitness of intermediate phenotypes leads to two sub-groups within a population
* Polyploid mutants- possible reproductive isolation is typical, due to an incompatible number of gametes
69
U1: what is fusion?
Two species diverged, but little evolution took place so when these groups reproduced your left with the original species.
70
U1: what are the possible out comes of hybridization?
* Formation of persistent hybrid zone
* Formation of new species through hybridization
* Reinforcement of trend towards speciation
71
U1: describe a stable hybrid zone:
| what is made necessary for this to occur?
- Two separate species mate in an area to create a new species. Thus giving you an additional species.
- Hybrids have as high or higher fitness than parents in some locations,
72
U1: what is reinforcement?
when two species produce a hybrid species that is less fit than both parent species.
73
U1: what is a phylogeny?
indicates the evolutionary relationship among different groups
74
U1: what is the difference between monophyletic paraphyletic and synapomorphy groups?
Mono- consists of all the species sharing a single ancestral population
Para- is missing some species
Synapomorphy-(“uniting form”) is a shared, derived character
75
U1: what is a homology?
If groups share a trait that is the same due to common ancestry.
76
U1: what is a homoplasy?
If groups share a trait that is not due to common ancestry
77
U1: what is adaptive radiation?
| what causes adaptive radiation?
- Rapid and extensive diversification of an evolutionary group.
- Open ecological niches & Key adaptation
78
U1: what is mass extinction?
| what is mass extinction caused by?
- Rapid disappearance of many species
| - Major physical disturbances
79
U1: major instances occurred from what?
Cambrian explosion
80
U1: what was the result of the Cambrian explosion?
* External and internal skeletons
* Cephalization
* Major sensory structures
* Locomotory appendages
81
U1: describe the following from the Cambrian explosion:
Doushantuo fossils
Ediacaran fossils
Burgess Shale fossils
Doushantuo fossils- From ancient deposits, displaying embryos.
Ediacaran fossils- Australian deposits, showing more organized structure
Burgess Shale fossils- Canadian deposits showing complex structures and most major animal groups present.
82
U1: what was the Permian-Triassic Extinction?
| what was likely the cause and how do we know this ?
-“Mother of mass extinctions”
96% of marine species. All eurypterids (sea scorpions), trilobites .70% of terrestrial species
-Vulcanism/ Impact event/Massive climate change
83
U1: what was The Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction?
Massive asteroid impact ~65mya = Loss of 75% of terrestrial and marine species in complex pattern.
84
U1: how do we know The Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction was likely a result of a large asteroid shower?
Iridium is present at high concentration inrocks formed 65 million years ago
85
U1: During what eon/era did the birds first appear?
Menzoic
86
U1: t/f is this in the correct sequential order: Precambrian, Mesozoic, Paleozoic ?
false, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic
87
U1: describe the genotypes of the Hb (sub s) and Hb (sub a) .
- Heterozygous individuals are protected from malaria.
- Homozygous individuals Hb(s), will develop sickle-cell disease.
- Homozygous Hb(a) individuals are normal allele.
88
U2: What do organisms need to be able to do?
Intake, process(excrete), reproduce, move, coordinate and control .
89
U2: What is diffusion?
Substances in solution tend to move down their concentration gradient
90
U2: What is Osmosis?
the movement of water down its concentration gradient
91
U2: Define the following terms: Osmolarity, Hyperosmotic, Hypoosmotic, Isosmotic.
Osmolarity-is determined by the combined concentration of all solutes in a solution.
Hyperosmotic- means that a solution has a higher concentration than another.
Hypoosmotic- means that a solution has a lower concentration than another.
Isosmotic-means two solutions have the same osmolarity
92
U2: What is the result of the following cell states: Hyperosmotic, Hypoosmotic, Isosmotic.
Hyperosmotic: Net flow of water out of cell; cell shrinks
Hypoosmotic: Net flow of water into cell; cell swells or even bursts
Isosmotic: No net flow fluctuation
93
U2: What is water potential and what is it determined by?
| What do these have in common?
- tendency for water to flow
- Hydrostatic pressure, Osmotic pressure, and Cohesion/Adhesion forces
- there all negative potentials
94
U2: what are these linked with: Matrix, solute, pressure (potentials)?
Matrix Potential- cohesion and adhesion
Solute Potential-Osmotic pressure
Pressure Potential- Hydrostatic pressure
95
U2: Fick’s Law can be used to predict rates of diffusion except in cases with particles that are ?
Charged
96
U2: Describe the Phospholipid bilayer:
Hydrophilic and lipophobic head and Hydrophobic and lipophilic tail
97
U2: What is anther word for the use channel proteins?
Permeation
98
U2: What is anther word for diffusion facilitated Carrier Protein.)
Facilitated Diffusion.
99
U2: Uniport vs. Antiport
Uni- active transport transport in one direction
| anti- moves in two directions and uses an electrochemical gradient.
100
U2: What is secondary active transport?
When a ion moves back into the cell via a symporter and the created electrochemical gradient.
101
U2: What does primary active transport require?
Atp via an Atp pump
102
U2: What moves through a phospholipid bilayer easiest?
small and chargeless molecules move through the easiest.
103
U2: t/f channel proteins move particles against their electrochemical gradient?
F, carrier proteins
104
U2: Who is the Father of modern animal physiology?
Claude Bernard
105
U2: What does ECF consist of?
Blood and interstitial fluid
106
U2: What are the geometric consequences of getting bigger?
- Increased distance between surface and center
- Decreased SA to Volume ratio.
- Resulting in: Decreased diffusion rates and
107
U2: How to calculate volume and SA
- SA: 6 x Length squared
| - V: L cubic
108
U2: What does increased surface complexity lead to?
Increased area for diffusion.
109
U2: What do plant cells contain?
Cell wall, vacuoles and chloroplast.
110
U2: What is the plant cell wall composed of?
Mostly cellulose
111
U2: What is the difference between the primary and secondary cell wall?
Primary- Young and growing, it is composed of pectin.
| Secondary- rigid and old cells, it is composed of lignin
112
U2: What is the layer located in between the primary and secondary cell wall?
Lamella.
113
U2: What are the openings in primary wall cells?
-Plasmodesma
114
U2: What does the central vacuole?
Contains ( Enzymes, salts, pigments, alkaloids, other chemicals) used to create turgor pressure.
115
U2: roots vs shoots
roots- Below ground, they serve to uptake water and nutrients as well as anchor the plant.
shoots- Above ground (stems, leaves, flowers) , they serve to harvest light, exchange gas, make sugars, and reproduce.
116
U2: Describe the function of lateral roots, root hairs, root cap:
Lateral roots- branch off to increase root reach
Root hairs- absorb water/nutrients
Root cap-protects growing tip
117
U2: what is the purpose of pneumatophores?
provide gas exchange
118
U2: What is the leaf?
Sunlight harvesting organ
119
U2: What process does building a plant body require?
Growth
| Differentiation: cells assume a particular identity and function.
120
U2: Where do new cells arrive?
Meristems
121
U2: new meristematic cells are (blank)
Totipotent
122
U2: Apical vs Lateral meristems:
-produce primary tissues and root tips (length)
{RAM} {Sam}
-Produce secondary tissues (width)
{vascular and cork cambium}
123
U2: How do cells expand?
- loosen's up
| - Generates turgor pressure
124
U2: How do cells generate turgor pressure?
1. transport solute into vacuoles
| 2. water moves in via osmosis
125
U2: What is intermediate growth?
Plant can continue to grow new tissue.
126
U2: What are three types plant tissues?
dermal- Epidermis of the plant
Vascular- xylem (water conduction) and phloem (food conduction)
ground- Bulk of plant, designated for storage.
127
U2: What is the purpose of cuticle?
Prevent water loss and pathogen entry
128
U2: What do the stomata do and what do they have?
Pours that allow gas exchange, and they have guard cells.
129
U2: What do the guard cells do?
use turgor pressure to open and close stomata.
130
U2: What do trichomes do?
Hair-like projections to protect and defend.
131
U2: What are the major types of ground tissue?
Parenchyma-
Collenchyma-
Sclerenchyma-
132
U2: What are the two types of conducting cells in xylem and what do they do?
Tracheid's- found in all vascular plants
| Vessel elements- in angiosperms and gnetophytes only.
133
U2: What are the two types of conducting cells in phloem and what do they do?
Sieve tube elements- transport vessels
| Companion cells- metabolic support for STE's
134
U2: what does secondary growth do?
Produces wood and length.
135
U2: in growth which vascular tissue comes first?
-xylem before phloem
136
U2: How does water move through xylem of the plant?
Via capillary action and transpiration.
137
U2: What shows the lowest water potential when a plant is undergoing transpiration?
The leaves
138
U2: How high can transpiration can lift water up?
100 meters
139
U2: What is transpiration?
Evaporation from mesophyll surfaces in leaves.
140
U2: Why does water movement occur?
1. Transpiration lowers water potential
2. Cohesion-tension pulls water up xylem
3. Water is taken up by roots
141
U2: What does increased sunlight do to transpiration and stomata?
increased transpiration rates and increased stomata openings.
142
U2: How is water loss reduced by?
- reduced leaf SA
- Thickened cuticle
- reduced stomata
- derived forms of photosynthesis
143
U2: What is translocation?
Movement of sugars by bulk flow in sap.
144
U2: What is phloem loading?
1. move sugars in the phloem
| 2. generate high water potential in phloem
145
U2: What is phloem unloading?
1. Move sugars out of phloem
| 2. Generate low water potential in phloem
146
U2: what is the source of plants biological materials?
Co2
147
U2: inorganic vs organic soil.
Inorganic: rocks
Organic: (humus) consisting of dead organismal tissue and animal waste.
148
U2: What is topsoil?
Crucial for healthy and stable plant community.
149
U2: what is the zone of maturation?
the site where new root hairs absorb the most nutrient uptake.
150
U2: What and why does nitrogen fixation occur?
- Nitrates and Ammonia
| - This is the way the plant can absorb nitrogen
151
U2: What is symbiotic bacteria?
Bacteria like ( Rhizobia and legumes) that has a mutualistic relationship with plants.
152
U2: What are nodules?
Infected root tissues that bacteria grow into.
153
U2: What do clay heavy soils hold?
Lots of nutrients
154
U2: What allows for nutrient uptake in plants?
Proton pumps create an electrochemical gradient, drawing in nutrients.
155
U2: what is transduction in plants?
Receptor cells convert sensory information into chemical messages.
156
U2: What are the hormones involved with Growth, Growth ending, stress respones:
GP: Auxin, Gibberellins
GE: ethylene
SR: abscisic acid
157
U2: What tropism?
Reaction of growth in response to tropism
158
U2: What is morphogenesis:
None directional growth response to a stimulus.
159
U2:Phototrophism, Thigmotropism, Gravitropsim:
- response to light
- response to touch
- response to gravity
160
U2: Thigmomorphogenesis:
change in shape due to mechanical perturbation.
161
U2: What is the Krummholz effect?
Growing in a direction to response to a wind.
162
U2: Nastic movements?
A non directional response
163
U2: Thigmonastic:
Movement is a response to touch
164
U2: Nyctinasty:
Movements based on time of day
165
U2: What is the coleoptile?
The first part of the shoot to emerge in a monocot seedling. Where the light is sensed.
166
U2: How does the coleoptile communicate its message to the rest of the plant?
Via water soluble chemical.
167
U2: Why is there a greater growth on the shady side of plants?
Increased auxin on that side via lateral transport.
168
U2: What is the difference between hypersensitive response and systemic acquired resistance:
Hypersensitive: Localized defense acting against pathogens, and is triggered by Hr.
Systemic acquired response: Whole plant defense activated via MeSA.
169
U2: What is the herbivore resistance in plants?
- Damaged cells release a hr called systemin.
- Systemin causes jasmonic acid to be produced in -cells, which promotes transcription of proteinase.
- Limiting digestion.
170
U2: What are volatile chemical messengers?
Gasses released by plants alerting them that there is potential danger nearby.
171
U2: how is light detected in plants?
phototrophins, or PHOT1 and PHOT2 receptors
172
U2: How do plants perceive gravity?
amyloplasts
173
U2: Plants that are fully parasitic often lack (blank)?
well-developed leaves.
174
U2: what do statoliths do?
control the distribution of auxin
175
U2: What do dry roots release?
Abscisic acid (promotes stomatal closing)
176
U2: What is the alternation of generations?
In plants both haploid and diploid stages occur in multicellular forms.
177
U2: Describe the process of sporophyte to sporophyte.
Sporophyte (2n) - spores (n) - Gametophyte (n) - gametes (n via mitosis) - zygote - sporophyte.
178
U2: name a sporophyte and gametophyte dominated life cycle.
Spor- flowering plant
| Gameto- moss
179
U2: sexual vs asexual reproduction:
Sexual: sporo dominated and alternation of generations
Asexual: clonal copies of parents.
180
U2: How do flowers sexually reproduce?
angiosperms
181
U2: describe the function of the following: Sepals, petals,
Sepal- Outer-most modified leaves.
| Petals- Used to draw in pollinators
182
U2: What is and what does the stamen consist of?
-Anthers and filaments
| Produce pollen and Elevate anthers
183
U2:What is and what does the carpels consist of?
Stigma: Receives pollen
Style: Elevate stigma
Ovary: Contains ovules
184
U2: What do the carpels fuse together to make?
The pistil
185
U2: Describe pollen development?
Microsporocytes(2n) - Microspores - Pollen
186
U2: in angiosperms what does the ovule become?
fruit
187
U2: What is scarification?
The physical abuse required to germinate.
188
U2: Bee pollinated?
Bright colors (not red)
189
U2: Fly pollinated?
dark and foul in oder
190
U2: Moth pollinated
Opens at night and usually white
191
U2: hummingbird pollinated?
Long floral tube, usually red orange or yellow
192
U2: wind pollinated?
Pollen is lightweight and not sticky
