biopsychology Flashcards
(60 cards)
1
Q
name the components of the nervous system
A
divides into central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
CNS divides into brain and spinal cord
PNS divides into autonomic nervous system (ANS) and somatic nervous system (SNS).
ANS divides into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
2
Q
describe the divisions of the nervous system
A
- the nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems
- the CNS comprises of the brain and spinal cord
- The PNS divides into the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
- somatic nervous system consists of sensory and motor neurones to carry sensory and motor information to and from the CNS and enables reflex actions
- the ANS acts involuntarily as consists of motor neurones only
- ANS divides into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
- sympathetic nervous system involved in fight or flight response
- parasympathetic nervous system involved in ‘rest and digest’ functions. n
3
Q
describe the role of the somatic nervous system
A
transmits sensory information from the sense receptors to the CNS.
transmits motor information from CNS to muscles/effectors to produce voluntary movement.
some movements are involuntary (reflex actions)
4
Q
what are the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
A
sympathetic - involved in fight/ flight
parasympathetic -involved in ‘rest and digest’ functions
5
Q
describe the structure and function of a neuron
A
- neurones enable communication within the nervous system.
- The cell body (soma) contains the genetic material (in nucleus)
- branch like dendrites extend from the cell body
- dendrites carry functional information towards the cell body
- dendrites can receive info from other neurones
- axons carry messages away from the cell body
- axons can be myelinated to increase speed of nerve transmission
- nodes of ranvier allow for saltatory conduction
- terminal boutons are at the end of axons and make the synaptic connections with other cells
- axon terminal contain neurotransmitters.
6
Q
what is the function of the sensory neurone?
A
receives information from the receptors (e.g. skin) and sends the info towards the relay neurone in the brain
from receptors to brain
7
Q
what is the function of the relay neurone?
A
takes information from the sensory neurone and passes it around the brain, towards the appropriate motor neurons
in the brain
8
Q
what is the function of the motor neurones?
A
receives info from the relay neurones and passes down to the effectors to make muscle movements e.g. dropping a pan.
from brain to muscles
9
Q
which neurone goes towards the brain?
A
sensory
10
Q
which neurone goes away from the brain?
A
motor
11
Q
which neurone is in the CNS?
A
relay
12
Q
outline synaptic transmission
A
- an action potential comes down from the axon
- stimulates calcium ions and the production of vesicles which contains neurotransmitters.
- the vesicles release neurotransmitters which diffuse across synaptic gap from an area of high conc to low.
- neurotransmitters bind to complementary receptors in post synaptic membrane, allowing sodium ions to move into post synapse
- this creates an action potential in the post synapse
- neurotransmitters are released and taken back into presynapse through a reuptake process and enzymes break down any remaining neurotransmitters in presynapse and synaptic gap
13
Q
what does an inhibitory neurotransmitter (IPSP) do?
A
- slows down the firing rate on the post synapse as it increases the threshold at which an action potential can be reached at the post synapse (hyperpolarisation)
14
Q
what does an excitatory neurotransmitter (EPSP) do?
A
speeds up the firing rate at the post synapse as it decreases the threshold at which an AP can be reached at post synapse. - depolarisation
15
Q
what is summation? name and describe the two types
A
the number of IPSP and EPSP is calculated.
more IPSP = inhibitory
more EPSP = excitatory
spacial summation - many neurones into one neurone
temporal summation - one neuron into one neurone
16
Q
outline the function of the endocrine system
A
- regulate cells or organs within the body
- control physiological processes by releasing hormones from glands into the bloodstream which bind to specific receptors.
17
Q
what is the function of the thyroid gland?
A
releases thyroxine which increases metabolism.
18
Q
what is the function of the pineal gland?
A
releases melatonin which regulates the sleep-wake cycle
19
Q
what’s the function of the pituitary gland?
A
master gland that controls all other glands release of hormone
Also releases oxytocin which increases binding or stimulates LH/FHS
20
Q
what is the function of the adrenal gland?
A
releases adrenaline which controls the sympathetic responses to fight/flight
21
Q
what is the function of the pancreas?
A
releases insulin to maintain blood glucose levels.
22
Q
A01 for fight or flight
A
sympathetic pathway
- acute stress in env = ‘threat’ detected by hypothalamus
- noradrenaline is secreted into the synapse causing an excitatory response that travels down to the m adrenal medulla.
- adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline into the bloodstream.
- increases heart and breathing rate, sweating and stops digestion. diverts blood from surface of skin.
Parasympathetic pathway
once ‘threat’/ stressor has passed the PSP decreases heart and breathing rate, blood pressure and turns on digestion (making people hungry/ thirsty)
23
Q
outline the evaluation for fight or flight (FoF)
A
reductionist - assumes only 2 elements to FoF.
- Ev - freeze effect - hypervigilant to threat, avoid confrontation, take time to decide best course of action
- Ex - cognitive process - decision making element in processing danger - not just instinctive bio response to threat.
-
L - But ‘freeze’ still evolutionary survival instinct - playing dead to ensure survival (instinctive response to survive an attack rather than decision making cog process).
FF or freeze still reductionist = solely attributing beh to evolution.
criticised for being beta biased
- Ev - assumes men + women use same FoF response.
Taylor et al - women tend and befriend. seek out social support in threat.
-
Ex - Bio/evolutionary process = Oestrogen enhances the effects of oxytocin (‘love hormone’), creating a bond with groups and the need for social support. Provides safety in numbers, protect offspring which FoF wouldn’t do.
testosterone inhibits it, and linked to aggression (fight). so FoF = gender biased. -
L - but this exaggerated diff - alpha bias - assumes aggression from FoF only male.
Research found males tend and befriend - seek out others when stressed for social support. FoF too reductionist - humans need number of diff ways to cope with threats.
outdated explanation - maladaptive in modern times
- Ev - Modern day stressors = chronic + long lasting (e.g. lack of money, job stress) rather than acute stressors with ancestors.
-
Ex - not situations where FoF can be used quick then put into parasympathetic state of R+D.
body would be in constant FoF mode - increased HR, inhibited digestion etc = heart attack, stroke, high blood pressure etc. - L - still some situations where FoF can be used such as in an attack but mostly maladaptive, decreasing life span rather than being adaptive for survival. If evolutionary, should de-evolve over time.
24
Q
what is the role of the frontal lobe and what areas does it contain?
A
problem solving and decision making
contains Broca’s area - speech production
and Motor cortex- voluntary movements
25
what area does the parietal lobe contain and what is its function?
**somatosensory area** - receives sensory info from skin to produce sensations related to pressure, pain, temperature etc.
26
what areas are in the temporal lobe and what are there functions
**Wernicke’s area** - language processing/comprehension
**auditory area/cortext** - analyses and processes acoustic info (e.g. volume, temp and pitch)
27
what area is in the Occipital lobe and what is its function?
**visual area** - receives and processes visual info (colours, shapes, movement)
28
outline evaluation for localisation of function in the brain
**_research support from case study_**
-**Ev** - Tan - could only say ‘tan, tan’ - lesion in Broca’s area. could do other functions such as maths
-**Ex** - Therefore Broca’s area is localised in its function for speech production. He had language comprehension and mathematical ability, so brain lobes have specific functions.
-**L** - but unique case study, can’t see function whilst alive - only after in post mortem.
correlational - may not be precise damage to Broca’s - modern fMRI scans shows other areas involved in speech production, so maybe not as localised as thought.
**_gender differences_**
-**Ev** - women have a larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s area than men
- **Ex** - not all individuals brains are localised in the same way - not innate, created by env.
Brian becomes more localised due to plasticity - primary socialisation (girls = language dev, boys = active playing - spatial areas)
-**L** - doesn’t criticise theory - specialised areas of brain are responsible for certain functions, but specialism = adaptive to a persons environment/ nurture.
**_brain only localised for simplistic functions_**
-**Ev**- higher mental functions, e.g. decision making and problem solving aren’t localised. Simpler functions such as language are more localised.
-**Ex** - this suggests brain isn’t intended to be localised and all parts of brain are used equally for a function.
more important to consider how diff areas work together rather than sep
-**L** - summary: useful in understanding basic localised functions of brain.
but unless we fully understand how areas communicate, we can’t understand complex mental processes e.g. memory, perception, attention.
This can be done through use of new technology (fMRI scans)
29
what is the left hemisphere of the brain responsible for?
language, analysis, problem solving
30
what is the right hemisphere of the brain responsible for?
Object and face recognition, creativity, spacial comprehension.
31
what is the corpus callosum?
bundle of neuronal fibres connecting the two hemispheres
32
outline Sperry’s study on lateralisation, including the results
- 11 ppl with epilepsy had corpus callosum cut and 11 ‘normal’ ppl with intact corpus callosum
- controls = hands in box, blindfolded one eye.
- words/ objects/ faces flashed onto a screen for 1/10th of a second, they fixated on a point in middle of screen.
results:
- **language**: LH and RVF - could say word
RH and LVF couldn’t say word
- **object recognition:** RH and LVF could draw object well
LH and RVF - drew object poorly
- **face recognition:** RH and LVF - could match face
LH and RFV - couldn’t match face correctly
33
outline evaluation for lateralisation
**_highly scientific research support_**
-**Ev** - lots of controls, e.g. 1/10th sec, hands in box, blindfolded in one
eye, control group
- **Ex** - strong causation, certain LH for lang and RH for face/object rec - not poss for other hem to have seen objects/words flashed.
-**L** - but sample - only 11 more of case study.
individual differences - all had diff surgeries so brian damage in each pp unique.
also the epilepsy could have changed the localisation of functions of their brain, therefore it doesn’t account for plasticity and isn’t generalisable.
BUT
Study has been heavily replicated with diff samples and found same lat of function (valid and reliable)
**_further research support for lateralisation_**
- **Ev** - Roger’s et al: chickens - brain lateralisation associated with enhanced ability to perform two tasks simultaneously: finding food and being vigilant for predators.
- **Ex** - Proves lateralisation is evolutionary and necessary for survival and that all mammals have this function.
-**L** - however, chickens = lower on ev scale (prey) - humans aren’t prey but apex predators - don’t need such threat detection. Lateralisation could only be in some humans (epilepsy) and chickens.
BUT
could be argued humans are lateralised for survival but in a different specialism. Need language to have safety in numbers/ coordinate activities or develop medicines etc. Need facial and object rec to attach to caregivers/for food/warmth.
so lat = necessary and bio.
**_lateralisation changes with age_**
-**Ev** - over age of 25, brain becomes more de-lateralised and loses its specialism in lang and object rec.
-**Ex** - Suggests lat of brains only required in childhood due to new experiences, ppl and lang. Not necessary in adulthood (new exp less common) If brain lat should stay lat.
but brain has plasticity - as brain decays it lacks capability to efficiently remain lateralised so brain has recruitment of homologous areas, where both areas of brain take on the function. Hence we need de lateralisation as we age.
also, simplistic to assume each hemisphere only does one function, more complex functions, e.g. problem solving needs both hemispheres to function together, not independently.
34
what is structural plasticity?
brain areas changing in shape/ structure
35
what is functional plasticity?
brain areas changing function (one area of brain can compensate for a damaged area by taking over their functions)
36
name the three ways in which plasticity can work
- axonal sprouting
- neuronal unmasking
- recruitment of homologous areas
37
what is axonal sprouting?
creating a new axon and axon terminal from the existing damaged one
38
what is neuronal unmasking?
creating a new axon from the cell body
39
what is recruitment of homologous areas?
the equal but opposite area of the brain in other hemisphere takes on the particular function.
e.g. if broca’s area damaged on left, right sided equivalent would take on function.
40
outline Maguire’s study on plasticity.
**sample**
- 16 London taxi drivers (who’d undergone the ‘knowledge test’) leant a map of London.
- 50 non-taxi drivers
matched pairs design - males, RH
**procedure**
- PET scan of hippocampus (memory)
- voxel pixel counting
- double blind study (researcher counting pixels didn’t know if taxi or non so no researcher bias)
**results**
- Posterior hippocampus larger in taxi drivers than non (structural)
- Posterior hippocampus had taken over some of anterior hippocampus in London taxi drivers (functional)
41
outline evaluation for Plasticity in the brain:
**_Criticism of Maguire’s research support_**
-**Ev** - sample bias (androcentric) and no before and after the knowledge test.
-**Ex** - can’t be certain if plasticity is same in women, or if ‘the knowledge test’ cause structural plasticity, or if they passed the test as their posterior hipp was already larger, hence better at remembering maps.
**_But, Maguire did further research to overcome criticism_**
-**Ev** - Same study but compared hipp before and after knowledge test.
Result: Posterior hipp did increase.
-**Ex** - learning mental map of london structurally and functionally changed their brains.
so brains do have plasticity and continue to develop as we learn.
**_but individual differences in level of plasticity ppl have_**
- **Ev** - gender - women have more plasticity in Broca’s + Wenicke’s area than men.
Education- undergraduate students that suffered brain damage had more plasticity than those without any qualifications (recovered more function)
Age - over 40 years plasticity decreases. takes longer to recover from brain damage.
-**Ex** - so, plasticity dependant on age, gender and education, suggesting it’s both env. and bio.
42
What are the 4 ways of studying the brain?
- post mortem
- fMRI
- EEG
- ERP
43
describe a post mortem
longitudinal study of person with
abnormalities (such as mental illnesses/trauma) using a triangulation of methods (interviews, questionnaires and observations).
After their death, a postmortem is conducted by dissecting the brain to see whether there is a correlation between damage to certain neural areas and the difficulties the person had in life.
e.g. Tan
44
evaluate the use of a post mortem
- high spacial resolution (allows for high level of examination of brain structures down to neuronal level)
- but poor temporal resolution (no direct brain activity to see as done on dead)
- no functional brain activity - not conducted on living brain so unusual beh in life and damage found is correlational. However, theories are then generated that can be tested.
- have been extremely useful in psychology’s understanding of brain functioning such as language centres (Tan)
45
briefly describe an fMRI
detects blood flow in the brain. (more active areas need more blood)
46
evaluate the use of fMRI
- good spacial resolution of around 1mm - precisely identifies active brain regions.
- but poor temporal resolution - one image taken every few secs and delay in blood flow after activity. many brain processes are too fast to study.
- non-invasive, safe technique compared to other options such as PET that use radiation.
- but expensive to build and operate and ppt needs to be still.
47
briefly describe an EEG
Uses skull cap and electrodes fixed to scalp to detect neuronal activity.
records general brain activity
48
evaluate the use of EEG’s
- high temporal resolution - measuring brain activity in milliseconds
- low special resolution - gives general readout of brain waves.
- cheaper than fMRI and can be used in experiments where ppt moves.
- used in diagnosing medical conditions such as epilepsy and in sleep research studies.
- portable, non-invasive
49
briefly describe ERP’s
Uses skull cap and electrodes fixed to scalp to detect neuronal activity.
takes baseline measure of passive brain activity then compares it to the readout of brain activity after doing an activity.
so can say change due to activity
50
evaluate the use of ERP’s
- high temporal resolution - ms sampling rate.
- poor spacial resolution
- portable, non-invasive
- useful in showing functioning to a stimulus.
- allow researchers to isolate and study how individual cognitive processes take place in the brain, while EEG’s record general brain activity.
51
outline one difference between the EEG and ERPs
EEG is a recording of general brain activity usually linked to states such as sleep and arousal
whereas, ERPs are elicited by a specific stimulus presented to the participant
52
what are the three types of biological rhythms? give examples
Circadian - 24hr cycle (body temp, sleep wake cycle)
Ultradian - less than 24hrs (eating, sleep stages)
Infradian - more than 24hrs (menstruation)
53
what is an Endogenous pacemakers?
control of biological rhythms is exerted from within (e.g. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN))
54
what are Exogenous Zeitgebers?
control is exerted from outside by environmental stimuli (e.g. exposure to daylight)
55
Explain the Circadian Rhythm of a sleep/ wake cycle
- lack of light (EZ) is detected by the optic nerve
- the info is passed to the SCN (EP) in the hypothalamus
- The pineal gland then secretes melatonin (sleep hormone) and decreases serotonin
- The person goes to sleep. the cycle then reverses when light (EZ) is detected by the retina
- The SCN in the hypothalamus then stops the pineal gland secreting melatonin and increases serotonin.
- the person awakes and this repeats every 24hrs.
56
outline evaluation for circadian rhythms
**_research to support role of EP’s in circadian rhythms_**
-**Ev** - 30 chipmunks had SCN removed and observed for 80 days. All chipmunks sleep-wake cycle ceased.
By end of study, significant proportion had been killed by weasels.
-**Ev** - The EP is responsible for keeping time to our circadian rhythm and ensures our survival.
-**L** - But humans are apex predators unlike chipmunks. EZ may be more important in humans, as less EP less needed for survival as we pray on other animals. E.g. Light from mobile phones interrupts the circadian rhythm of adolescents, affecting academic performance.
**_research to show EP important in human circadian rhythms_**
-**Ev** - Michael Siffre in cave for 2 months. No EZ - no light, clock, communication to outside world. Only could call out to his team. Found his circadian rhythm stayed at around 24.5hrs.
- **Ex** - EP (SCN) can hold humans to a 24hr circadian rhythm without any EZ. Therefore, our bio clock more
important.
- **L**- But case study of caver who was used to being underground. Was cold and wet, reducing his body temp, increasing sleepiness. So cannot
assume circadian rhythm is purely down to EP when living on the surface of earth.
**_real life application for role of EP_**
-**Ev** - Eskimos in arctic circle have daylight all summer and dark all winter. They maintained a 24hr circadian rhythm.
-**Ex** - Suggests humans don’t need an EZ (e.g. light) to regulate the circadian rhythm. EP = most important factor.
-**L** - But eskimos used blackout curtains during summer months and UV light during winter. Therefore stimulating the EZ to help maintain the circadian rhythm to 24hrs.
57
describe ultradian rhythms in relation to the stages of sleep.
stages 1 + 2 = light sleep (Non-REM)
stages 3 + 4 = deep sleep (Non-REM)
stage 5 = dream (REM) - similar to awake.
- This cycle from active to rest to active happens every 90 mins (hence ultradian)
- Known as Basic rest activity cycle (BRAC)
58
Outline evaluation for ultradian rhythms
**_research support for ultradian rhythms being biologically controlled by EPs_**
-**Ev** - 9 pps stayed in a sleep lab and were woken every time the EEG brainwaves changed, using a doorbell sound. Pps asked to report what they remever. Only recalled dream in REM sleep.
-**Ex** - so, SCN regulates any basic rest activity cycle in the body, such as the sleep stages. We go from active to rest to active every 90 mins which is bio controlled.
-**L** - But small sample of 9 and have been reports of dreaming in stage 4 of sleep (non-REM), so activity isn’t specific to REM sleep.
Also, time taken to go through sleep stages can change depending on env. factors, e.g. mobile phone light.
59
explain infradian rhythms in relation to the menstrual cycle
- Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release LH and FSH
- LH and FSH stimulate the development of follicle in ovary
- As follicle develops, oestrogen is released from ovaries, suppressing LH and FSH.
- As oestrogen increases the uteral lining, LH and FSH are re stimulated by hypothalamus
- The spike in LH and FSH releases an egg. This causes progesterone to increase, thickening the uteral lining further in preparation for a foetus.
- If the egg isn’t fertilised, progesterone and oestrogen decrease, the uteral lining sheds. This repeats every 28 days approx.
60
outline evaluation for infradian rhythms
**_research support for infradian rhythms being controlled by EZ’s_**
- **Ev** - Study- collected pheromones (EZ) in the sweat from the armpits of women who were due or ovulating. The sweat was placed on the upper lip of other women. Their menstruation cycle synced to ‘odour donor’.
-**Ex** - so, external factors such as pheromones from other women can alter the infradian menstruation cycle. Hence, EZ play a part in them.
-**L** - But pheromones are bio chemical messengers and syncing the inf. rhythm of menstruation could be considered evolutionary, as it ensures women give birth around the same time so can look after each others children to provide safety in numbers, ensuring a higher survival rate.
