Block 2 - Unit 1: Knowing the Users.

Question 1

Culture?

Answer 1

The system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, symbols and language of a particualar group of people.

Question 2

‘Lily pond’ model (3 sets of 3)

Answer 2

Lilies - Behaviours (Observable)

Stems - Attitudes and values (Reportable)

Roots - Beliefs (Unconscious)

Question 3

‘Lily pond’ model summary.

Answer 3

Visible flowers like visible behaviour; the flowers depend on stems, just as behaviours are informed by attitudes and values, and the whole plant relying on invisible, deep roots, just as culture is informed by beliefs.

Question 4

‘Onion model’ description.

Answer 4

Beliefs (middle / deepest layer), then Attitudes and Values, then Behaviours.

Arrows between layers indicate influences are 2-way.

How one behaves depends on one’s attitudes and beliefs, but the result of one’s behaviour can reinforce or modify such attitudes, and many such modifications might change beliefs.

Question 5

Hofstede’s onion-like model description.

Answer 5

Outer layer - visible symbols
Middle layer - heroes and rituals
Inner layer - values

Identification of heroes and practice of rituals (eg. greetings) depend on your values and influence behaviour.

Eg. May value Nelson Mandela as a hero, and behave towards people you perceive as having done you wrong in a way that indicates you’re aspiring to understand and forgive.

Question 6

Examples of cultural groups or categories. (6)

Answer 6

Brought up in a particular country. (Arguably has the greatest effect).

Adhere to a particular religion.

Gender.

Profession or trade.

Organisational culture (eg. employed by multinational organisation).

Age group.

Question 7

Why focus on national culture?

Answer 7

Rapid growth of internet and global markets - products to transend national boundaries.

Hofstede’s work on national cultures is very influential (and controversial).

Work of, eg. Marcus and Gould, draws on Hofstede’s work and provides good illustrations as to how people’s deep-seated values and beliefs may affect impact of product.

Hofstede’s work provides us with the beginning of a framework within which to think about and analyse other cultures, such as those associated with organisations. Eg. Power Distance.

Question 8

Some questions Hofstede posed to IBM employees. (3)

Answer 8

How often are employees afraid to express disagreement with managers?

How often are they nervous / tense at work?

How important are:

• time for personal life
• good physical working conditions
• good relationship with direct supervisor
• opportunity for high earnings

Question 9

Hofstede’s 4 dimensions?

Answer 9

Power distance (PD)

Individualism (IND)

Masculinity - Femininity (MAS)

Uncertainty avoidance (UA)

Question 10

What are Hofstede’s dimensions useful for?

Answer 10

Provide a framework within which countries and their cultures could be compared.

Comparison can be used to explain some culture clashes between different nations.

Question 11

Power distance?

Answer 11

Concerned with a nation’s reaction to inequality:

The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.

Question 12

Country with high PD index?

Answer 12

People expect / accept power invested in few individuals or an elite.

The elite expects respect and obedience, and in return will care and protect.

Question 13

Country with low PD index?

Answer 13

Individuals aspire to equality and to the sharing of responsibility and power.

Question 14

PD and family.

Answer 14

High - children respect parents authority and parents have reciprocal duty of care.

Low - children allowed more independence and not expected to obey unquestionably.

Question 15

PD and school.

Answer 15

High - teacher respected and expected to take all initiatives.

Low - more leeway for students.

Question 16

PD and workplace.

Answer 16

High - ideal boss is a benevolent dictator; power is centralised and power structures hierarchical.

Low - flatter hierarchies and more democratic institutions.

Question 17

PD and state.

Answer 17

High - totalitarian regimes.

Low - centralist, striving for equality.

Question 18

Marcus and Gould aspects of UI / web design influenced by PD. (3)

Answer 18

Symbols of power - more likely to be used in high PD nations.

Freedom of information - may be more restricted where PD is high. Eg. some info only available to managers.

Motivation / attention grabbing:
High - websites / software motivate by reference to symbols of power.
Low - motivational symbols might focus on website users.

Question 19

Why is Marcus and Gould’s work controversial?

Answer 19

Quite hard to to match characteristics of a website designed in a particular country with Hofstede’s characterisation of the culture of the country.

Motives of designers are complex - may not be aiming just at a particular country, but promoting a corporate image, or trying to appeal to people outside a particular national boundary.

Question 20

Individualism?

Answer 20

Societies where ties between individuals are loose - everyone is expected to look after themselves or immediate family only. (Opposite of collectivism).

Question 21

Collectivism?

Answer 21

Societies where people from birth are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout their lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

Question 22

Collectivist cultures. (4 points)

Answer 22

Collective valued more than individual interest.

Fitting in with in-group very important.

Qualities such as harmony and avoiding conflict are valued.

In-group members concerned with ‘losing face’ (not fitting norms) and collective shame (whole in-group).

Question 23

Individualistic cultures. (4 points)

Answer 23

Individual interests might take precedence over collective.

Expressing own opinion valued as a sign of sincerity and honesty. (Collivist - may be expected to suppress differing opinions).

Ability to handle conflict valued over ability to avoid it.

Individual qualities, eg. self respect and guilt, are more important than their collective equivalents (group pride / shame).

Question 24

Aspects of jobs that indicate an individualistic society. (3)

Answer 24

Give time for personal life.

Provide a personal sense of achievement.

Provide freedom in how job is done.

Question 25

Aspect of jobs that indicate a collectivist society. (3)

Answer 25

Provide training opportunities. Provide good working conditions. Fully use individual's skills and abilities.

Question 26

IND and family.

Answer 26

Collectivist - family unit tends to consist of an extended family in intense, continuous contact, so little need for explicit communication. Family members strive for harmony and learn to avoid conflict.

Question 27

IND and school.

Answer 27

Collectivist - teachers must be aware of need for harmony as opposed to need for individual recognition and achievement. Individualist - difficult to get students to work together collaboratively in groups.

Question 28

IND and workplace.

Answer 28

Individualist - work should be organised so interests of the individual and the organisation coincide. Collectivist - employees not individuals but members of an in-group. Duty of loyalty and protection to each other - may influence policies such as who gets hired and fired.

Question 29

IND and state.

Answer 29

Collectivist - hard to get preferment, and easy to gt overlooked if not a member of the in-group in power.

Question 30

Marcus and Gould IND and ID. (2)

Answer 30

Symbols of success: Individualist - they may be individual, such as individual qualifications or consumer items. Collectivist - symbols may represent achievement of a collective ideal. Rhetoric style: Individualist - different opinions tolerated. Collective - collective view more important than tolerance of individual viewpoints.

Question 31

Masculinity?

Answer 31

Society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life.

Question 32

Femininity?

Answer 32

Society in which social gender roles overlap: | both men and women are supposed to b modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life.

Question 33

MAS - attributes of job valued by men? (4)

Answer 33

High earnings. Recognition. Personal challenge. Personal advancement.

Question 34

MAS - attributes of job valued by women? (3)

Answer 34

Good working relationships with boss and colleagues. Employment security. Location of job.

Question 35

MAS and family.

Answer 35

High - father / mother roles distinct; father - facts, mother - feelings. Low - roles more blurred.

Question 36

MAS and school

Answer 36

High - teachers may be respected more for results and expertise in subject. Low - more for expertise in human relationships. Student depression more linked with exam failure for high MAS, but more to personal relationship failure for low MAS.

Question 37

MAS and workplace.

Answer 37

High - management relationships more likely to be confrontational. Low - more likely to be cooperative.

Question 38

MAS and state.

Answer 38

High - more expenditure on defence. Low - more on welfare. High - economic growth valued over environment (and vice versa for low).

Question 39

Marcus and Gould - MAS and ID.

Answer 39

Difference in gender roles: High - reflect traditional gender role differences. Low - more blurred. Motivation / attention grabbing: High - more emphasis on games, competitions and quick results. Low - aesthetics.

Question 40

Uncertainty avoidance?

Answer 40

The extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations.

Question 41

High UA linked to what aspects at IBM? (3)

Answer 41

Finding the job stressful. Intending to remain in the job for some time. Feeling company rules should never be broken.

Question 42

UA and family.

Answer 42

What counts as dangerous learnt early on in life. High (certainty sought) - children may absorb that 'different is dangerous'; may lead to an intolerant society. Low - children more likely to be tolerant of differences.

Question 43

UA and school.

Answer 43

High: Schools more highly structured, with more rules; knowledge more likely to be seen in terms of correct answers and grand theories; teachers seen as unchallengeable experts. Low: Intellectual debate between teachers / students encouraged.

Question 44

UA and workplace.

Answer 44

High: Cultural need for frameworks and rules - people might be better at implementation than innovation, with managers better at operational details than strategy. Low: People more eager to explore the unknown; reverse of above - innovation might blossom and managers be better at strategy.

Question 45

UA and state.

Answer 45

High - more likely to be bound by precise laws and bureaucracy, and citizens more likely to respect authority.

Question 46

Marcus and Gould - UA and ID. (4)

Answer 46

Navigation: Low - people might want opportunities to explore. High - people might want to achieve aims in a precisely structured manner. Treatment of errors: High - software may emphasise avoiding user errors as much as possible. Low - may emphasise enabling exploration; minor errors tolerated. Ambiguities: High - less tolerant of ambiguity, so need redundant cues (colour, typography, sound) to reduce ambiguity. Low - such redundancy might be unnecessary, so colour, typography and sound might represent information. Simplicity: High - UI may be as simple as possible, avoiding uncertainty.

Question 47

Marcus and Gould - questions designers should address before starting design (based on 4 dimensions). (6)

Answer 47

What will motivate users? How much conflict can people tolerate in content or style of argumentation? What role exists for personal opinion as opposed to group opinion? Lack of ambiguity or potential exploration valued more? How much advertising hyperbole is expected (or tolerated)? Should on online help system act like a guru giving the definitive answer, or a friend suggesting possibilities?

Question 48

Culture and the PROCESS of ID. (comment and 2 examples).

Answer 48

Understanding of your users' assumptions, values and beliefs should help make their involvement in a design as effective as possible. (To identify needs, establish requirements and evaluate alternative designs). Eg. high PD - users may be reluctant to voice difficulties of a product imposed by their bosses; may need to use less direct methods, like observation. Eg. high UA - users may be averse to major changes; any changes should be introduced carefully.

Question 49

Cultural limitation of Hofstede's original work.

Answer 49

IBM survey was from USA and Western Europe and focused on values important in their culture, but overlooked values important in other cultures (eg. respect for parents in China).

Question 50

Chinese Value Survey (CVS)

Answer 50

Results showed dimensions correlating to PD, MAS and IND, but not UA. Seperate dimension identified - Hofstede associated with short-term vs long-term orientation. Short-term orientation - wanting quick results and desire to 'seize the day'. Long-term orientation - persistence and looking to the future. ID - eg. short-term - swift feedback and rapid results might be very important to users.

Question 51

Tromenaars' 3 categories of problems.

Answer 51

A. Those arising from an individual's relationship with other people. B. Those arising from the passage of time. C. Those relating to the environment.

Question 52

Tromenaars' 7 fundamental dimensions of culture.

Answer 52

1. Universalism vs Particularism. 2. Individualism vs Communitarianism. 3. Neutral vs Emotional. 4. Specific vs Diffuse. 5. Achivement vs Ascription. 6. Management of time. 7. Attitudes to the enviroment.

Question 53

Universalism vs Particularism.

Answer 53

Universalism - assumed their is some right way of proceeding in a given situation. Particularism - more emphasis on context to determine right way of proceeding. Culture with strong social norms might be universalist; one allowing more individual behaviour, particularist.

Question 54

Individualism vs Communtiarianism.

Answer 54

Similar to IND index.

Question 55

Neutral vs Emotional.

Answer 55

Neutral - expected nature of our transactions is to be objective and detached. Emotional - showing emotion expected or at least not deprecated. Eg. British likely to be neutral in their transactions, Latin American more emotional.

Question 56

Specific vs Diffuse.

Answer 56

Relates to degree to which peoples' roles are separated. Specific - boss behaves as a boss in work place, but as a friend in a social setting. Diffuse - boss behaves as a boss at all times, a friend like a friend. The role 'diffuses' through all behaviour.

Question 57

Achievement vs Ascription.

Answer 57

Achievement - individuals judged by own achievements (record of accomplishments). Ascription - judged by group their associated with, eg. kinship, age, connections, education.

Question 58

Management of time.

Answer 58

Cultures might have either sequential or synchronous concepts of time management. Sequential - time conceived as a 'race'; task done one at a time and one task completed before another started. Synchronous - time conceived as a 'dance'; tasks done in parallel.

Question 59

Attitudes to the environment.

Answer 59

Should focus of concern be on the individual or environment around them. Eg. Japan - wear mask to stop their cold spreading; stereo to avoid disturbing others. UK - mask to protect self from pollution; stereo to avoid individual being distracted by others' noise.

Question 60

Accessibility?

Answer 60

The degree to which an interactive product is usable by disabled people.

Question 61

Assistive technologies?

Answer 61

Hardware and software that enable disabled users to interact with a computer (or other device) in a way that is independent of the software application being used. Eg. screen readers, head-mounted pointing devices and voice recognition products.

Question 62

Why is accessibility a complex subject? (3)

Answer 62

People may have a range of impairments, and more than one at once. Impairments vary in severity and impact on life. Severity / impact can vary over a day (eg. tiredness), and over a lifetime (eg. eyesight, hearing), and with respect to activities being done.

Question 63

3 main factors which contribute to the reasons designers should be concerned with widening accessibility.

Answer 63

Ethics. Good practice. Law.

Question 64

Ethical issues (accessibility needs).

Answer 64

Disabled people have the same rights to access goods and services and so shouldn't be excluded if possible.

Question 65

Good practice (accessibility needs)

Answer 65

Good commercial practice to make product widely available. Also likely to be more accessible to and useful for non-disabled users. Eg. UI for blind users might be useful for someone whose eyes are busy on another task, eg. driving, operating machinary or can't interact visually because they're using a service via phone.

Question 66

Legal obligation (accessibility needs)

Answer 66

1995 Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) - can't discriminate against employees, students and consumers. Need to make 'reasonable adjustments' to comply. Covers websites, software, buildings, etc. Needs should be anticipated.

Question 67

ID and needs to comply with DDA.

Answer 67

If there's any chance of disabled users action must be taken to account for this. Shows importance of understanding users and their goals. Sometimes can assume certain characteristics, but few occupations where it is safe to assume no disability.

Question 68

Disability (DDA)

Answer 68

Someone is disabled if: - They have a mental or physical impairment. - The impairment has an adverse effect on their ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities. - The adverse effect is substantial and long-term (has, or is likely to last for 12 months or more).

Question 69

'Day-to-day' activities; areas that must be badly affected (DDA) (8)

Answer 69

Mobility. Manual dexterity. Physical coordination. Continence. Ability to lift / carry / move everyday objects. Speech, hearing or eyesight. Memory or ability to concentrate, learn or understand. Understanding of the risk of physical danger.

Question 70

Impairment (WHO).

Answer 70

Any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function.

Question 71

Disability (WHO).

Answer 71

Any restriction or lack of ability resulting from an impairment to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.

Question 72

Hanicap (WHO)

Answer 72

A disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairement or disability, that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex and social / cultural factors) for that person.

Question 73

Criticisms of WHO definitions.

Answer 73

Concerns about definitions of (ab)normality; lack of heed to environmental factors (eg. lifts prevent handicap in this context); a focus on disability and handicap caused be psychological / physiological impairments leads to emphasis on a cure (medical focus), rather than on addressing the issues as they stand (social focus).

Question 74

Medical model of disability.

Answer 74

Locates the problem of disability within the individual an sees the causes of this problem as stemming from the functional limitations or psychological losses which are assumed to arise from disability. The barriers exist because of peoples' impairments.

Question 75

Social model of disability.

Answer 75

All the things that impose restrictions on disabled people; from individual prejudice to institutional discrimination, from inaccessible public buildings to unusable transport systems, from segregated education to excluding work arrangements, etc. I.e. society disables people with impairments. The model focused on the need for society to change policy and attitudes, and to eliminate economic discrimination.

Question 76

'Sight problem' (RNIB)

Answer 76

Unable to recognise someone across the road, or difficulty reading newsprint even when wearing glasses.

Question 77

Screen reader?

Answer 77

Software that monitors the output to a screen and passes it on to a speech synthesiser or Braille display.

Question 78

Speech sythesiser and advantage over braille.

Answer 78

Either a small desktop box with its own speaker, or internal card using external / computer speakers. Cheap compared to Braille and often standard with new computers.

Question 79

Main difficulties of speech synthesiser.

Answer 79

Hard to obtain a quick overview - output is linear. Can take much longer to read screenful of text, and can be tiring to listen to.

Question 80

Advantages (2) and disadvantage of Braille.

Answer 80

Can be read at a fast rate (at own pace). Can get a better idea of spatial layout of a screen. Very expensive - mainly used in the workplace where it can be purchased with grants.

Question 81

Assisting perception of computer output by partially-sighted people. (2)

Answer 81

May require particular settings, eg. Yellow text on Black background, certain type faces and font size. ('Hi Viz' settings). Software magnifiers: - whole screen - area around cursor - half screen split

Question 82

Assisting computer input by blind and partially-sighted people. (4)

Answer 82

Rely on keyboard - most applications can be used with keyboard shortcuts; active research into learning shortcuts and avoiding inconsistencies between apps. Large print labels can be used on keys, or high contrast colours. Speech output can announce key presses. Partially sighted my be able to use mouse too.

Question 83

Differences between computers and other interactive products for use by people with visual impairments.

Answer 83

A computer may have assistive technology installed / connected, and likely to be customised to the user; With interactive products, assistive technology is less common and needs to be used without person have such technology with them.

Question 84

4 requirements a computer application should have in order for blind people to interact.

Answer 84

1. Fully operable by keyboard. (Standard / specific shortcuts). 2. Compatible with screen readers. 3. Possible to read interface objects and visual objects that convey information with a screen reader. (Associate text label / description with such objects). 4. Interface objects and other content should be readable by a screen reader in a way that makes sense to the listener. (Coherent / logical grouping, consistent across different screens).

Question 85

Blind people and interactive devices other than computers. (3 points)

Answer 85

Touch-screens and pointing devices can't be used. Can use Braille labels for buttons - most can read small amounts. Key point - users need to be able to learn options available without operating them, eg. be aware of 'cancel' button without pressing it to discover function.

Question 86

Partially sighted people and computers. (3)

Answer 86

May require the ability to operate via a keyboard. May need a screen magnifier. (Pure text - images distort. Pictures of high quality can be used). May need software to inherit OS settings for colours / fonts, or the ability to customise the display.

Question 87

Partially sighted and interactive devices other than computers.

Answer 87

Can access audio output, but may have difficulty reading text. Requirements include: - Large fonts (option) - High contrast (or option to change colours) - High-visibility controls - Access to alternative output (speech, audio, etc)

Question 88

Colour blindness. (2 points)

Answer 88

Surprising number of people affected. (10% of males) Colour should not be used as ONLY source of information.

Question 89

Deaf and hard of hearing. (4)

Answer 89

High numbers of deaf and hard of hearing. Most severely / profoundly deaf can't use voice telephone or hearing aids. Hearing aids provide lower quality sound than normal hearing. Some use sign language as primary or only language, and may not read or write.

Question 90

Assistive technology for deaf or hard of hearing people using computers. (4)

Answer 90

If they became deaf later in life and can read and write they won't require specific technology. Hearing aids may be connected to computer speakers or an amp. Severely deaf may change settings, eg. screen flashes. Signing avatar.

Question 91

Requirements of hard of hearing people. (3)

Answer 91

Audio channels shouldn't be the only source of transmitting information. User should have control over volume and tone of audio output. Ability to link hearing aid to amp. or speakers, or an induction loop system.

Question 92

Requirements of people with severe hearing impairments. (2)

Answer 92

May require alternative to speech input. May need alternative to text output / entry. Eg. pictorial information, signing avatar, voice recognition.

Question 93

Computers and health (for all).

Answer 93

Problems with back / RSI etc can be alleviated through: - Good posture - Breaks to stretch and relax - Holding mouse lightly - Increase font size (eye strain, posture).

Question 94

Effects of physical impairment. (6)

Answer 94

Tremor / shaking Weakness Pain Reduced control of limbs Inability to sit upright Short / missing limbs

Question 95

Assistive technology - input devices - for physical impairments. (2 categories, 7 items)

Answer 95

Pointing devices: - Joysticks - Trackball - Touch pads Keyboards: - Single-handed - Different shapes (eg. curved) - Different size (large keys, compact) - On-screen (eg. Switch operated by single movement.

Question 96

Alternative input for physical impairments. (3)

Answer 96

OS utilities, eg. Sticky keys Intermediary devices for keyboard input, eg. stick in mouth, track dot on head. Voice recognition for text entry and controlling the computer.

Question 97

Requirements of physically impaired people for interactive products.

Answer 97

Considerations: - Not requiring users to type. (eg. speech recognition) - Buttons - large, easy to press, tactile feedback. - Portable devices - easy to hold, robust if dropped. - Public service devices - accessible to wheelchairs / dwarfs. Access to computers: - Keyboard to operate all functions (compatible with most types of assistive technology).

Question 98

Some ways to address distraction / concentration problems. (2)

Answer 98

Enable tasks to be performed in stages, which can be put on hold for interruptions. Checks to prevent permanent effects, eg. "Are you sure you want to delete?".

Question 99

Some ways to address memory problems. (2)

Answer 99

Multiple cues for an interface object, eg. icon AND short explainatory text. Easier to recognise than to recall - list of options to choose from.

Question 100

Problem associated with dyslexia. (6)

Answer 100

Reading hesitantly. Misreading, making understanding difficult. Sequences, eg. getting dates in order. Poor organisation or time management. Organising thoughts clearly. Erratic spelling.

Question 101

Technology to assist dyslexic reading. (2)

Answer 101

Text-to-speech software (may include visual indication as text is read). Software / OS settings to change text presentation - eg. size, colour, spacing.

Question 102

Technology to assist dyslexic composing / writing. (2)

Answer 102

Voice recognition software. Word-prediction utilities - help ease / speed of composing.

Question 103

Requirements of dyslexic people for computers or other devices. (4 + 1)

Answer 103

Ability to change colour / font settings. Option of speech output. Option of speech input. Clear, consistent design For computer access: Inheritance of OS settings for font and colour, if needed.