BRM Flashcards

Question

Reasons for omissions in news reported data

Answer 1

That is one source reports information that another source does not. * This demonstrates why more sources provide better coverage. * Creating data this way is incredibly time consuming. * Which is why most researchers just reach for an established data base. * Even if it is not quite right for their research questions (more on this in later weeks). Security reasons

Answer 2

where you take three sources and go with the majority (minority report) and if all 3 contradict, then widen the number of sources used till a correlation is found (using Crenshaws list as a limiting factor)

Answer 3

the correlation between different raters using the same code scheme

Answer 4

Textual - name of country, city etc Numerical - number of perpetrators, victims, deaths, injuries, hostages etc Categorical - qualitative options eg weapon type - hand gun, long gun, bladed weapon, improvised weapon etc Dichotomous - did X happen? e.g. ransom demand, hostages taken etc

Answer 5

Objective - facts - eg date of an incident, location, weapons used etc Subjective - need careful defining as open to significant interpretation - eg motives

Answer 6

1. Don't over interpret your data 2. Avoid scales 3. Categorical variables must be inclusive 4. The categories of categorical variables must be mutually exclusive 5. Are you dealing with missing data?

Answer 7

* Don’t read into things… * For example, avoid making assumptions about why the perpetrator is doing something (unless this has been established externally some how, e.g. in a note they left). * Stick to observables that can be said to have happened or not. * For example, while preparation and planning are potentially important, identify the specific behaviours that you are taking as indicators of these things and turn them into variables rather than the more abstract concepts themselves. * For example, any of these phrases in a definition will affect your reliability. * “More violence than was necessary” * “A great deal of violence” * “Were highly aggressive” * Because they require your second coder to make a judgement which will introduce potential unreliability

Answer 8

Avoid anything that involves judgements. * Scales (e.g. 1 to 5) require an opinion from the coder. * E.g. low violence, medium violence, high violence. * This is just a judgement call. * You need operational definitions. * You need to specify exactly what coders should take into consideration. * Try to make it as easy as deciding whether something happened or it did not.

Answer 9

* If your variable is categorial you must account for all eventualities. * Not just your 3 cases here – imagine this will be a real research project with many more cases to be included. * Your scheme must be able to accommodate many more other cases that may arise. * Often the other categories will only become apparent as you start to code a larger sample. * This is fine – you can alter it as you go along – until your data are ready for analysis. * Many schemes (e.g. GTD) have an “other” category for things they haven’t expected.You can change with time, BUT must change the historical data when you do

Answer 10

* This is a problem for many published schemes. * They appear to have started with categories that are NOT mutually exclusive. * And then they have had to solve it in less than optimal ways. * Because it would be too difficult to go back and change things when you have already invested in the scheme. * You see it in the GTD. e.g. weapons - what if they have more than one weapon type?Does no mean no or just 'not reported'?

Answer 11

* Do you need a “unknown” category? * Is it really a no or is it just not reported?* For example, did the hostage takers verbally abuse the hostages? Yes/no * The first case you read says that they did, so you can code “yes”. * The next case says that they were very polite to the hostages, so you can code “no” they definitely didn’t. * The third case doesn’t mention anything at all about what they said to the hostages. * So it can’t be a “yes” or a “no”, it must be unknown? * You need a third category for unknown. * Keep as much data as possible when first coding because you can always collapse the categories later but you can’t get the original back again.

Answer 12

to improve decision making| to understand it to develop decision support systems

Answer 13

Researchers do not get access to the people the commissioning might be through the decision makers themselves Access to the data might be difficult to manage

Answer 14

where you go back over a closed case for people to talk through how decisions were made. but difficult due to confidentiality

Answer 15

Statistical analysis comparing highly correlated variables Eg I like going to parties might link to I enjoy meeting new people, and with strong agreement with other statements can lead to identification of personality traits

Answer 16

Exploratory| Confirmatory

Answer 17

No set hypothesis Use data to make groups

Answer 18

Start with groups and see if data fits the mold

Answer 19

A Survey is a general term for any kind of data collection on people’s opinions or behaviour. E.g. A market researcher asking how you found the facilities at an airport.

Answer 20

A questionnaire is a set of questions (usually written) that people are asked to respond to – usually on a rating scale. Thus, a questionnaire can be used as part of a survey What people do, not how they think What, how, when, how many...

Answer 21

* Open ended: the person writes their answer. * Which brand of toothpaste do you buy? * How old are you? * Category tick boxes: Are you aged 18-25, 26-35, etc. * When should you have categories not actual replies? * “Sensitive” data; Arbitrary banding; Unable to recover detail. * Which of these news sources do you read? (tick all that apply) * How often do you read them? (daily, weekly, monthly). * If the question needs them to choose only option from a selection… * Then just like your variables for Content Analysis the categories must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. * The use of “Other” as a category. * Transport to work example…all that apply? Or the longest distance?

Answer 22

either 9 or mode

Answer 23

telephone survey researcher led questioning paper based questionnaires Online surveys

Answer 24

* Can get to a wide variety of people geographically. * How will you select your sample? * Random number dialling? * Not everyone has a landline or a mobile. * And this is related to age – i.e. a biased sample. * People are often annoyed by cold callers. * It will rarely be a good time for them. * You could pre-arrange a good time. * With postal questionnaires, at least they can fill it inwhen they choose. But they mainly forget or throwit away. * Telephone surveys are not used very often.

Answer 25

The researcher reads the questions to the participants and fills in the answers for them. * Can be pre-arranged by appointment… * Or opportunistic, e.g. asking people in a public place. * Often used by market researchers on the street. * This is the same as a structured interview with pre-determined response choices. * The challenge is getting people to stop and take part. * Useful if the respondent has difficulties with reading/writing.

Answer 26

* Paper based questionnaires. Can be: * Handed out to people face to face, and: * Completed there and then (e.g. in a class). * Taken away and return by post or to a central point. * Sent out in the post. * The challenge is getting people to send it back. * See response rates. * You must report your response rates – i.e how many you sent out compared to how many you got back. * Your response rates will be low.

Answer 27

* For example: * Surveynet.ac.uk * Smartsurvey.co.uk * Surveymonkey.co.uk * Onlinesurveys.ac.uk * Here at Imperial students have access to: * Qualtrics * See Imperial website. Also gives tips on writing questions. * Caution: This makes it seem very easy to produce and send out questionnaires. * Fine for a survey but if you want a scientific product you need to be trained…these methods are what psychology students are doing for 3 or 4 years! I am giving you the basics of behavioural research methods. * Even for a simple survey you still need Ethical approval * The ethics lecture in SiC is part of this module andexaminable.

Answer 28

In common with postal questionnaires: *People may ignore the inclusion criteria and fill it in even if they are not in the desired demographic category. *Especially if there is an incentive such as a £5.00 Tesco voucher. *Very easy to get bored or affronted and just hit exit. *No knowledge of non completers (see later). But also for internet questionnaires: *Reach a selective (biased) population of users. *Okay if you are aiming for a young, relatively wealthy and educated sample. *On the positive side they are cheap and fast to distribute.

Answer 29

* Don’t make the questionnaire too long. * Four sides A4/40 questions max as a rule of thumb, but depends… * It can be more if the participants are motivated insome way. E.g. it will improve their own experience of something, e.g. their local area. * Incentives help – tokens, entry into a prize draw. * Explain why the results of the study are important (in your cover letter). More likely to give up their time. * They need a prepaid return envelope if posted. * Coloured paper is helpful in an office environment. * Sending reminders – if you know who has received the questionnaire and it is not too expensive (e.g. email reminders).

Answer 30

representative? Random? Convenience? Systematically biased - self selected; accidental? Chosen sub samples - women, commuters, students Ask for demographic details or focus on the group only

Answer 31

* Only a small proportion of people given questionnaires return them. * If you send them out randomly then you only have demographic data on those who reply. * We do not know anything about the people who didn’t respond. * Those who answer may be different somehow – and in a systematic way. * For example, those who volunteer to take part in research are typically more educated than the general population average.

Answer 32

* Even though you specify who you want to complete the questionnaire in your introduction… * You get people who were not in your inclusion criteria. * This can happen with paper and online questionnaires. * Some people add a question to check. * For example, you only want male students and said so at the start. * But now a whole load of women have filled it in and ticked female on the questionnaire. * Did they not read the introduction? * This will be particularly problematic if there is a financial incentive.

Answer 33

* Keep questions short and simple.Avoid question that are too general. * For instance “Do you agree with current terrorist sentencing policy?” * Covers much they may not know about, or they may agree with some but not all aspects.Avoid implying the socially desirable answer or asking leading questions: * Most people think single use plastics should be restricted, do you? * Do you agree that terrorists released from prison are a serious danger to the community?

Answer 34

Modifiers/qualifiers two part questions other peoples views negative directional questions/double negatives

Answer 35

button push for one question line measure (need to measure, easier to use a Likert scale) anchoring (eg pain scale) pick a day - how to pick an 'average' day Semantic differential scale - old and not used much nowadays

Answer 36

An introductory letter explaining… * Who you are * What the research is about * What is required of them * A number of things required by ethics (which we will covered in SiC). * Information on how to return the questionnaire.

Answer 37

* Often start with “About you” * Here you collect any demographic information you need. * Age, gender, education, etc. * And you need to end with: * THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR TIME AND CO-OPERATION * Put this centred at the bottom of the last page.

Answer 38

* You can’t collect any information that could identify the respondent. * But you must be able to find that person’s data should they wish to withdraw it from the study. * Number the questionnaire with a code. * And now you have to explain to them what the number is for and that they should remember it.

Answer 39

with content analysis

Answer 40

a measure of internal consistency

Answer 41

Moderate - 0.6-0.7/8>0.8 is considered very good >0.95 might indicate issues with experimental design with too much redundancy in it

Answer 42

openness conscientiousness extroversion agreeableness neuroticism

Answer 43

Wording issues Clarity of questions distribution of responses leading questions

Answer 44

not in the persons knowledge/experience meaningless questions too personal/sensitive

Answer 45

wording of the question:I MIGHT find jury duty QUITE difficult; toI WOULD find jury duty VERY difficult

Answer 46

where you break a sentence down into facets and use the same core sentence with different facets to see how the different wording might affect answers.e.g.A COUNTRY has a RESOURCE which is USED IN A WAY for a CERTAIN PURPOSE

Answer 47

a framework for defining a research domain

Answer 48

a study where you ask someone to self report their reactions to a situation

Answer 49

a route through a mapping sentence

Answer 50

can lead to a high number of variables (>500 with 20 variables) so research must be limited with the possibility of other researchers working of different combinations of structuples variables need to be interpreted consistently eg loved one could be different between wider family member or partner variables need to be consistent and work together eg if you are with someone then further facets need to logically work, so cannot have items like 'you were alone' using terms like 'loved one' can be highly provocative

Answer 51

as this means the question is to (un)provoking

Answer 52

more similar facets structures will be more similar empirically

Answer 53

Smallest space analysis - a form of multidimensional scaling each point represents a questionnaire item higher correlation, closer together the points are shows overall relationships between questionnaire items should be able to partition space for different elements

Answer 54

Science of measurements How to: Quantify measurement tools Validate measurement tools Score measurement tools

Answer 55

Assessment - skilled and trained person eg psychologist Test - untrained to administer the test You can fail a test not an assessment

Answer 56

Personality Ability/intelligence Motivation and values Clinical constructs (depression etc) Economics

Answer 57

Diagnosis Job selection Job fit Understanding personality Model relationships Ability

Answer 58

collect qualitative data on how people think and feel about an subject usually in an interview setting time consuming

Answer 59

Q-Sort Conceptualisations Free sort Structured sort Semi structured sort Multidimensional Scalogram analysis (MSA)

Answer 60

Print statements on cards and participants sort into strongly agree and disagree Like a questionnaire but forces a positive or negative state onto each statement and can only have a certain amount in each category so creates a forced distribution

Answer 61

A way to understand what people think about things Get the answers without researcher imposed preconceptions

Answer 62

Words are not always opposite ends of a scale Words are not necessarily those they would use spontaneously or apply to the situation They are provided constructs which could be leading the participants to a desired outcome if randomisation is not present Not all constructs are linear constructs or quantitative

Answer 63

Items on cards with short label on each one (15-40 items) Each coded All from same domain, not too similar and not too different Then conduct with participants: Free sort Structured sort Semi structured sort

Answer 64

Where participants sort the items into as many groups and categories as they see fit with no constraints

Answer 65

You choose the concept of the sort and they choose the categories eg price - high, medium, low and why

Answer 66

You choose concept, they choose categories eg you choose price, they choose how to categorise them

Answer 67

With each sort record reasons why they have categorised each item the way they have

Answer 68

Constructs people applied eg material, price etc Categories within each construct How the constructs were applied to each item

Answer 69

Multidimensional scalogram analysis

Answer 70

Put the item as one of a number to f items and see how they rank it in comparison to the other items

Answer 71

Individual - How a chief of police conceptualises crime (SME information interrogation) Groups - How do people conceptualise crime Comparison - offenders and non offenders conceptualise crime Intervention measurement - Changes in how offenders conceptualise crime pre and post rehab

Answer 72

A combination of events that cannot exist Poor sampling A gap in the market?

Answer 73

risk of harm to participant risk of harm to researcher Informed consent Vulnerable populations Non-discrimination Privacy, confidentiality, anonymity Data storage, use, destruction Scientific merit Approval of changes

Answer 74

assess risks in probability vs severity Participants should be exposed no more danger than they experience in everyday life procedures in place to manage and reduce risk measures in place to monitor distress, provide access to support networks

Answer 75

Stress, anxiety, humiliation

Answer 76

invasion of privacy exposure to degrading treatment humiliation challenges to self image, social status, personal relationships etc disclosure of illegal/deviant behaviour Trigger topics risk of leaving person vulnerable Deception Disclosure of info that might lead to persecution, state, local, job etc Access to data such as medical records, job information etc

Answer 77

providing the participants with information about what the research is: 1. trying to achieve, 2. how, 3. Risks; and 4. with info on how to withdraw

Answer 78

the participants can take part or otherwise without fear of reprisal e.g. power dynamics are not present, rewards are appropriate and not coercive

Answer 79

must be over 16, some cases over 18 under then guardian must provide consent must monitor for signs of distress

Answer 80

Children Learning difficulties Engaging in acts against societal norms (criminals) Prison/probation populations

Answer 81

It can be appropriate, but only if it is spelled out why in the plan - eg the work is on womens health you can exclude men

Answer 82

must never identify people unless you have written consent still need to have a UIN for each participant so you can remove their data is they withdraw consent Make clear if withdrawal is not an option after a certain time

Answer 83

Inform board: what it is being used for How it will be used (papers, conferences etc) Retention periods How it will be destroyed

Answer 84

Why is it important? Is it a waste of money? Respects the participants must be worthwhile and for the common good

Answer 85

Demonstrate to ethics and lay people why the research will be useful and what it will achieve

Answer 86

Deception is not appropriate Observations must be consistent with the environment (crowded place vs private location eg toilet) Change management of the experimental process

Answer 87

must not deceive acknowledge right to refuse withdrawal of participation

Answer 88

provide as minimum a debrief sheet for the participants essential if the research was not to test what was initially presented to them as an opportunity to withdraw consent

Answer 89

Used to calculate inter-rater reliability when working with categorical data, two raters, independent ratings and same set of items, and when accounting for chance is important K = (Po - Pe)/(1-Pe) Po = Observed agreement by raters Pe = Hypothetical probability of chance for ratings

Answer 90

Compared to interview: * Quicker to sample 10 peoples views at the same time if they are all there at once * Therefore Cheaper * And you can say more people were involved

Answer 91

* Can be dominated by one or two assertive people * Social influence - People change their views to fit those of the group * Very bad for mixed status workgroups *As the researcher, group discussions are harder to control * People take eachother off on tangents * Can be a good thing if you want creative or unusual ideas

Answer 92

The tendency to do what one is asked in a psychology experiment. They may not agree or think of the construct in the way the researcher is asking them to conceptualize them

Answer 93

When the respondent selects from the same part of, for instance, a likert scale because the questions are all measuring the same construct the same way. To fix this you would reverse some of the questions so the respondent has to select different parts of the scale

Answer 94

Define the points of the scale effectively, e.g. for a pain scale an anchor should be given so the respondent understands what a 10 is and can select accurately based on this

Answer 95

We might compare the frequency of something before and after a significant event

Answer 96

Take two sets of numerical data and see if they are related

Answer 97

A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variable, causing a spurious association It's an extra variable that you did not account for. They can ruin an experiment and give you useless results

Answer 98

Pre-Existing Data: This type of data already exists and can be obtained from various sources such as government statistics, business reports, historical records, etc. pros: easy access, saves time and resources. cons: It may not fully meet the needs of the research question, or the data quality may not be controllable.

Answer 99

This type of data is collected by the researchers themselves through field observations, experiments, or simulations. pros: More precise targeting of research questions, providing higher quality data. cons: The process of collecting data can be time-consuming and costly.

Answer 100

Elicited Data: This type of data is mainly obtained from research participants through interviews, questionnaires, focus groups, etc. pros: This type of data can directly capture the views, attitudes and experiences of the research subjects, and is very valuable for understanding human behavior and psychological characteristics. cons: The derived data may be affected by factors such as participants' bias and dishonest answers, thus affecting the accuracy of the data variables in the experiment

Answer 101

Decision Making Research is an academic field that involves the study and analysis of the decision-making processes that individuals or organizations adopt when making choices. decision making Research covers a variety of subject areas, including psychology, economics, management and neuroscience, among others.

Answer 102

Interviews - This is a direct method of data collection, where researchers engage in one-on-one conversations or group discussions with subjects to capture their perspectives, ideas, experiences, and story. Observations - In this method, the researcher observes and records the behavior, interactions, or environment of the research subjects Protocol Analysis - Expert talks about what they are doing as they do their job It is a method of collecting data in practice, which is especially suitable for studying complex cognitive processes, such as decision making, problem solving or learning process. in agreement In the analysis, the researcher usually asks the participants to make a "thought report" as they perform the task, that is to say what they are doing, why they are doing it, and what they are doing. What to think about. Conceptual Methods e.g. Sorting Tasks, conceptual mapping, vignettes This approach includes a range of tools and techniques for exploring and understanding how people think and understand. For example, sorting tasks can be used to Understanding how research objects classify and organize information; conceptual mapping (conceptual mapping) can reveal people's thinking patterns and relationship networks; short stories or situations Vignettes can be used to explore the likely responses or behaviors of a research subject in a given situation

Answer 103

Studying them as they are making real decisions in work Advantages The data you collect is immediate and current, reflecting the situation as it is happening. It allows for the possibility of real-time adjustments to the study or intervention based on the observations. It may be more accurate since it doesn't rely on recall or predictions. Disadvantages It might be more resource-intensive (time, money, manpower) as it requires immediate analysis and potentially continuous monitoring. It may be difficult to implement in certain circumstances where immediate data collection isn't feasible. It may be influenced by observer effects, where the presence of the observer influences the behavior of the study participants.

Answer 104

asking them about what decision they would make in a hypothetical future scenario Advantages the content of the decision scenarios can be manipulated to suit the research. It often has rigorous design and can control for confounding variables. It allows for the direct observation of outcome events. Disadvantages It can be costly and time-consuming. we gain information about what people say they will do, and there is no way to know if this is what they actually will do. Prediction of future trends or behaviors can be uncertain and may be influenced by unforeseen factors.

Answer 105

asking them about decisions they made in the past, perhaps in relation to a specific case study. Advantages You are asking them about a real world case Disadvantages Time lapsed: The more time that passes, the more likely it is that participants will forget… Cognitive distortions can alter the way that the participant reflects on the decision that they made. Verbalisation - In some cases, people cannot verbalize why they made the decision at the time. Organizational concerns raise concerns about the use of real cases. Security questions about the case may arise.

BRM Flashcards

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