BSS Flashcards
(177 cards)
1
Q
Definitions - why are they needed?
A
Legal - to consistently apply laws
Academic - to consistently apply research and corroborate findings
2
Q
the key points defining terrorism (academic) (3 and 2)
A
- Act of violence or the threat of force and or violence
- Non state actor
- through fear and/or intimidation
one of the following
1. aimed at attaining political, economic, religious or social goal; or
2. an intention to coerce, intimidate, or convey some other message to a larger audience (or audiences) than the immediate victims
3
Q
Expand on 1 act of violence or the threat of violence (*)
A
Usually easy to decide
Some definitions exclude property (most do not)
Threats on property are the most common but do not make the news
4
Q
Expand on 2 designed to cause fear in general population
A
About fear induced in wider populations
Public fear that they will be targeted?
Do assassinations fit this profile?
Fear is to pressure an authority to enact change
5
Q
Expand on aim is to use fear to pressure an authority into change
A
Change can be political, religious or social NOT personal
How do we consolidate actions within a campaign? Eg ransom demand for solely money, but part of a wider political campaign?
6
Q
How are the terrorist victims described?
A
For terrorism to hold, victims need to be identified as civilian
Some terrorist groups consider off duty law enforcement/military as combatants
7
Q
How are the terrorist perpetrators described?
A
Some definitions, eg CIA, define terrorists as being sub national, therefore states can never carry out terrorism.
That said, international law would suggest that Nations carrying out acts of violence against specific groups could be considered to be carrying out genocide/war crimes
8
Q
What is the global terrorist database?
A
Research tool trying to monitor and gather statistics on all terrorist related events
9
Q
Is a terrorism label a value judgement?
A
No, it is a specific set of metrics that combine to label an event ‘terrorism’
10
Q
Why do terrorists want publicity?
A
To generate fear that can be used as leverage to bring about change
Publicity about the acts creates the fear
11
Q
What is ‘new terrorism’?
A
Jenkins (1987) ‘terrorists want a lot of people watching not a lot of people dead’? Has it changed?
Is higher body count due to requiring more media attention ?
Multi national approaches, is there less concern about alienating a core population IRA vs ISIS
12
Q
Reasons terrorism is a form of communication
A
Create fear in public
Develop a supporter base
Backlash from supporter base v important
Targets and methods important to deliver impression management - eg IRA bomb warnings
Can be a recurring tool after successful attacks
13
Q
Terrorism as a propaganda tool
A
Show of power
Message to those claimed to be represented by the group
Policies to only attack or not to attack certain groups - similar to rules of warfare
14
Q
Why does Terrorism seek to deliver provocation of a government?
A
Terrorists regularly cite ill treatment by authorities (Hogan and Silke)
Terrorists can provoke authorities into heavy handed responses - eg Israeli policy on assassinations in early 2000’s.
Provocation also know as jujitsu politics (McCauley 2006)
Provocation can make things worse due to reprisals
15
Q
Is there a ‘cause’ of terrorism?
A
Misleading, rarely one cause, complex factors usually at play. Implies a directly causal relationship rather than ‘one policy too far’
Correlation does not equate causation in these cases
Individual factors rarely predict terrorist leanings but do help understand the wider views of the terrorist community being supported
16
Q
Is profiling useful?
A
Yes in that it frees up cognitive abilities of law enforcement and creates a simple checklist of indicators for them to look for.
BUT IF the terrorist does not follow the ‘standard’ archetype, ie gender, skin tone, accent etc then will lead to false sense of security
No, ends up demonising a community and potentially increase support for a terrorist group rather than breaking it.
Most research indicates that most terrorists are ‘normal’
17
Q
What is Silke’s 2003 take on terrorism radicalisation factors?
A
Wrong circumstances create terrorists
Most people Support or consider joining a terrorist group when exposed to discrimination against yourself/loved ones
can make terrorism seem a justified response
18
Q
2 terrorism myths
A
Not related to poverty or lack of education
Blackmail / coercion is rare
19
Q
Cases where terrorism has not been related to education or wealth
A
2007 Glasgow airport bomb 5 of 8 questioned were doctors, one was a engineering PhD
2009 underwear bomber UCL trained Mech eng? But these are cases against western targets, would this hold true for Tamil Tigers etc?
Further research by Krueger Maleckowa 2003, Sageman 2004, Pape 2005 support this hypothesis
20
Q
What are Borums 3 main causes of terrorism?
A
Perceived injustice
Identity
Need for belonging
21
Q
Additional factors with Borums 3?
A
No way to change through legitimate political means
Feelings of revenge against those believed to perpetrate perceived injustice
22
Q
Social factors leading to people becoming terrorists?
A
Need for social identity and belonging (IRA and ETA)
Excitement
23
Q
Common correlates for terrorists in western countries? (X6)
A
Sociological discrimination
Feelings of alienation
Social exclusion or marginalisation
Political exclusion
Educational or occupational discrimination
Racism
24
Q
cases where it is really hard to decide on whether an act was or was not an act of terrorism and the reasons for that.
A
Murder of Jo Cox and David Amess If no political rhetoric is put forward, if the attack does not inspire fear in general population, is it against citizens or just infrastructure?. Ie does it meet the 3 criteria for a terrorist act?
25
What is the difference between terrorism and hate crime?
Hate crime focus on minority groups whereas terrorism is against society as a whole.
Hate crime can cover speech, whereas terrorism needs to be a physical act, incitement to commit an act or plan to commit a violent act
Hate crimes are generally single ideology - anti gay, trans, Jew, Muslim, etc that would stray from the societal norm of creating an inclusive society
26
There are three common components of definitions of terrorism
Use of force
Create climate of fear
Get a government to change its policies on a topic
Some specifically exclude nation states from being terrorist organisations
27
What are the PURPOSEs of terrorism?
Not just about killing, some acts and organisations try their best to avoid this, some groups eg Greenpeace in France, do not target people
Long term goals - not just a prisoner release
Publicity
Communication
Recruitment
Provocation
28
Purpose of terrorism - Publicity definition
is needed in order to create the fear that will pressure for change.
* The ‘symbiotic’ relationship between terrorism and the media.
* Is there such a thing as new terrorism?
29
What is 'new terrorism'?
Juergensmeyer calls new terrorism the “anti-order of the new world order of the 21st century”, stating that “[new terrorism] appears pointless since it does not lead directly to any strategic goal, and it seems exotic since it is frequently couched in the visionary rhetoric of religion.
”New terrorism can be broadly defined by three main characteristics:
1. Ethno-nationalist and separatist based
2. Inspired by the rise of extremist fundamentalist religious factionalism
3. Emergence and prevalence of ‘Ad hoc’ terrorism
Generally:Amorphous in structure
Us against the West rhetoric Fundamental religious tie
Seen as ‘performance violence’ but this could be due to the need for more sensationalist attacks for media to report, particularly if the attack is outside a Western nation. Also organisations may not have same need to protect core demographics as the IRA or ETA did for their support.
30
Purpose of terrorism - Communication definition
Highlight strength of organisation with own constituency and therefore potentially also propaganda.
31
Purpose of terrorism - Provocation definition
They are deliberately trying to provoke us (government/society) into responding…why?generate fear
create a disproportionate response so government looks bad* “Jujitsu Politics” - McCauley (2006).
32
What is Jujitsu Politics?
McCauley (2006)A terrorist act designed to provoke a massive over reaction by the victim nation. Arguably the most effective example was US response to the 9/11 attacks. Huge economic drain on the US as they put in place measures to counter potential violent extremism
33
What factors increase someone's likelihood of becoming a terrorist?
Mental health
Personality
Significant life event
34
What factors are not indicative of being a terrorist?
Poverty
Education
35
What is Target hardening and Situational Crime Prevention
Target hardening - increase of security on building/installation/city area to mitigate/lessen the impact of an attack
Situational crime prevention Situational crime prevention aims to increase risk and/or minimise reward, thus making either the commission of a criminal act too difficult, or the reward for committing the act too low to risk being caught.
Uses rational choice theory and routine activities theory to create the following effects on someone trying to committee a crime:
increasing the effort
increasing the risk
reducing the rewards
reducing provocations
removing excuses
36
What is the difference between prevention and deterrence
Prevention is an upstream approach, it is about wanting to stop people wanting to commit a crime
Deterrence is about making an attacker choose a different target because your target is too difficult or boring to attack
37
How can we measure the success of counter terrorism measures?
Great question, observe how other countries with similar threat profiles to yours fair over the same time period.
Whether database such as GTD demonstrate a downward trend in activity against your nation, and Indra hopefully overall!
38
what are Substitution or Transference in terrorism terms?
this is when terrorists decide that a target is too difficult for attack so transfer to one of the following approaches:
Time - come back when a target is less well protected - murder of Lee Rigby
Space - attack the same type of target but in a different location - IRA murder of Horse guards in Hyde park
Target - change target type - eg embassy hostages for hotel hostages. 7/7 from tube to bus
Mode - switch to a different form of action eg transfer of action from bombing, to marauder shooter to driven vehicle
39
What is Routine Activity Theory ? (3 components)
in order for a crime to occur, there must the presence of three linked elements:
motivated offenders,
suitable targets and
the absence of capable guardians. Capable guardians can include people such as security guards or the police, as well as environmental factors, such as locks or other security devices.
40
What is Rational Choice Theory?
Minimise risk, maximise reward
potential offenders rationally choose to commit crime, and also the methods used in order to do so. This choice is influenced by the offender’s need to maximise reward while minimising risk.
Note this has its detractors as to accurately measure on this model you need to account for cognitive biases, at the moment there are approx 200 which could be indicative of the mode needing to be reassessed
41
Define protective security
The means to:
Mitigate risk that arise directly from the potentially harmful actions of people such as criminals, terrorists, hostile states, and malicious insiders
42
Security risks arise from?
Purposeful adversaries
43
What is security? (X2)
First duty of government and basic human need
44
Security builds (x2)
Trust and confidence
45
Is security a common good?
Yes
46
What is risk?
Risk = threat x vulnerability x impact
47
Are security risks static monoliths?
No they are dynamic and adaptive - a system created by a human can be defeated by a human
48
Risk funnel top tier - what combine to make the threat?
threat actors intentions
threat actors capabilities
49
Risk funnel middle tier - what combine to make the likelihood?
Threat and victims vulnerability
50
Risk funnel bottom tier - what combine to make the risk?
Likelihood of attack
Impact of attack
51
What are the main threat actors? (x7)
Terrorists (Islamist, NIRT, XRW)
Hostile foreign state actors
Criminals
Insiders
Hacktivists, script kiddies and other hackers
Political extremists and violence-prone protestors
Fixated individuals
52
Three stages in risk management cycle?
Understand the risks
Decide on how much risk to take
Act to reduce risks
53
Characteristics of good security? (x8)
* Risk based (and intelligence-led)
* Proportionate
* Well governed
* Holistic
* Regularly tested
* Well measured
* Layered
* Dynamic
54
What is an insider?
A person who exploits, or intends to exploit, their legitimate access for unauthorised purposes
Someone who betrays the trust of others by causing harm
55
Types of insider?
* Insiders may be third parties (e.g. contractors, suppliers)
* Insiders may be malicious or unwitting
* Insiders may be self-starters or cultivated by external threat actors (e.g. criminal or terrorist groups, hostile foreign states)
56
What is Personnel security?
The defensive measures by which an organization protects itself against insider risk
57
Difference between Personnel and Personal security
first is a risk to an organisation, the latter to an individual inside the organisation.
eg the MOD holds a risk from personnel, but provides personal security to senior leaders and Ministers.
58
2 methods of creating personnel security
verifying identity
assurance of trustworthiness
59
4 ways we can misperceive risk?
Noting Wikipedia has a list of approx 200 cognitive biases, these 4 are seen as a common group that affect personnel security
* Availability bias
* Optimism bias
* Present bias
* Inattentional blindness
60
5 biases for mishandling risk
* Confirmation bias
* Groupthink
* Sunk-cost bias
* Hindsight bias
* Outcome bias
61
What is trust? (*)
a psychological state that reflects a person’s “willingness to rely on another in a risky situation based upon positive expectations of the other’s intentions or behaviors
"Omanda state of mind that gives confidence that the risks ahead are being managed to a point where everyday life and investments for the future can continue.
62
How can we measure trust?
Tactical
Are people in org honest? vetting, criminal background checks etc
Risk registers
policies and procedures
Strategic
SROs
Assurance - trust but verify
63
How do we deter /prevent individuals from becoming a malicious insider?
Good management
Regular check ups 1-2 times a year
64
What experiential and personality factors predispose individuals towards insider action?
Personal grievances with organisations
Perception of being held back etc
65
Is money an important motivator for insiders?
No
66
How can we avoid recruiting malicious insiders?
Vetting
Russians tried to infiltrate US security with sleeper agents, does not appear to have worked
67
How can we avoid creating malicious insiders?
Good management!
68
What are the early lead indicators of potential insider action and how can we detect them?
Change in lifestyle
Negative Change in performance
Working unusual hours when compared to their baseline of normal
69
How can we improve people’s ability to assess risk?
Experience
Training - classroom and live exercises
Exposure
Lessons learned
70
How can we help people to understand complex adaptive systems?
use of examples - covid and the 2nd, 3rd...nth order effects. War in Ukraine affecting gas and food prices globally
push the need for resilience in systems
71
How can we counter optimism bias and other cognitive biases?
Red teams
Premortums
Lessons learned
72
How can we help decision-makers to make better decisions, especially under pressure?
highlight how resilience can benefit organisations
training - exposure to real time issues
73
How can we help organisations to learn from experience and become more resilient?
Culture of openness
lessons learned
Premortem exercises
74
Difference between deliberate and malicious?
Malicious acts are always deliberate but deliberate acts are not always malicious.
Deliberate act - thalidomide - honest intentions with poor outcomes; or a product that's recipe is changed but the harmless additive causes issues
75
Why study malicious contamination?
potential for large scale issues
research can help prevention or aid investigation
motivations translate well to other criminal behaviour
76
Define malicious contamination
Two forms:
poisoning of an individual product
tampering
Covers a range of crimes with different fundamental motives
77
What are the 3 facets for malicious contamination? (*)
Kilbane and Wilson 2019
Specificity
Motive
Form of action
78
what is a typology?
a general classification type - eg personality types
79
Kilbane and Wilson 2019 - define specificity
this is who was targeted
number of potential victims
need to compare intention vs actual outcome ie - only one person targeted in a workplace, but multiple people were affected
High specifyicity is about targeting a single person, low could be just random victims, its a scale more than a dichotomy as groups of increasing size could be targeted ie persons, couple, family, workplace, consumer of a product...
80
Kilbane and Wilson 2019 define motive
range from personal to political but difficult to distinguish as politically motivated might have an element of personal motivation ie revenge for a policy - harming the politicians family etc.
81
Kilbane and Wilson 2019 define form of action
expressive vs instrumental
expressive more emotionally driven
instrumental about achieving a goal
82
Kilbane and Wilson 2019 what are the facet combinations?
A ( specificity ) = 1 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
B ( cause ) = 1 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 2 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
C ( violence ) = 1 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙) 2 (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒)
83
Kilbane and Wilson 2019 Facet outcomes?
8 groups
84
What is a script?
A sequence of expected behaviors for a given situation
Abelson (1981) Abelson’s theory shows us is that we tend to understand certain situations in terms of their overall “script”, and behave in a way that is reasonably agreeable with the script
Donald - I know more about how people will behave by their location than who they are
Follows social and locational rules
85
What is a schema?
A heuristic technique
a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them
What people wear when going to work vs to a gig
86
what is a schemata?
A group of schemas
87
What do scripts, schema and schemata lead to?
a) For public to have expectations about what will happen in certain situations.And therefore,
b) How they should behave. These scripts help guide people’s interactions with others and with the physical environment.
88
Why might people not behave appropriately in an emergency?
* Social learning – it’s only a false alarm.
* Poor knowledge of fire spread/misreading the situation.
* Embarrassment, social influence.
* “Faulty Scripts” and “Script Breakdown”
89
Define social learning
A process where new behaviors can be acquired through observing and imitating others
Eg cannabis being a ‘gateway’ drug is primarily due to the social groups who use it might have a more accepting view of other drugs
90
Define faulty script
Where a script leads to adverse consequences,
eg helicopter crash in water people are use to car seat belts to their scripting takes them to the side of a seat rather than their front where the release is
91
Define script breakdown
where an individuals script for an event fails (through mental, drug induced reasons, can be outside bounds of expected interactions) and the individual exhibits behaviour not perceived as 'normal' by reverting to everyday behaviour (shopping in a warzone etc)
92
Where do faulty scripts come from?
They can come from group behaviour, deliberate grooming/radicalisation - social media algorithms are optimaised for increasing attention, therefore prime tools for encouraging extreme behaviours
93
Do people panic in an emergency?
No
Drury, Novelli and Scott (2013) those crowds with whom we do not identify that we find uncomfortable, whereas we actively seek central and even dense locations in those crowds which we categorize as ‘us’
94
How does belief in disaster myths have the potential to adversely affect the preparation for and management of victims in an emergency?
people plan for the wrong outcomes
eg looking for signs of panic, but only choose signs taken from Hollywood, not real world examples, therefore underestimate cues to look for.
Experience in battlefield triage may work for explosive incidents, but may not be appropriate methodologies in other contexts
95
What are the two approaches for explaining scripts?
Social roles - your role within the setting
Environment - place you are
96
3 types of hostage taking?
Kidnap
Barricade Siege
Hijack
97
How do the 3 types of hostage taking differ?
Hijacking – Hostages are held under duress but the main goal of the terrorists is something other than killing the hostages, e.g. the al-Qaeda-inspired 9/11 attacks, where planes were hijacked and flown into iconic buildings.
Barricade-siege – Terrorists invade a building to kill or hold people hostage. This type of incident inevitably provokes a quicker response from the authorities and results in a stand-off, e.g. the Bataclan theatre siege where Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) inspired terrorists murdered 90 people and injured many more.
Kidnapping – Different to the first two categories in that it is normally a predetermined activity involving the instigation of demands or concessions by the hostage-takers.
98
What are the implications for the authorities of the 3 types of hostage taking?
Media attention - though Kidnapping might prefer to not have the coverage, particularly if it is not terrorist motivated. Double edged sword for Governments, can help the governments cause for new policy/legalisation, but can also make them look weak and lacking control
Policy of not responding to ransom demands - but may deliver support through other channels so as not to be seen as being influenced by violent acts
99
What might look like hostage taking but isn't classified as hostage taking?
Kidnap
when the intention is to kill not release the people taken
people who are hiding from attackers
100
What is hostage identification syndrome?
Also known as Stockholm syndrome, a bond between hostage taker and hostage. untestable hypothesis, well untestable in a post Stanford prison experiment world.
101
Why is HIS important?
Increases the likelihood of a hostage situation ending without deaths, BUT may cause increased sympathy for the organisations causes
102
Pros of HIS for each party?
hostage: increased chance of survival
Authorities - increased chance of hostage survival
Hostage takers - good publicity, hostages easier to control
103
Cons of HIS for each party?
hostage:?
Authorities
hostages provide good publicity for the cause, hostages cannot be relied on in escape planning
Hostage takers
difficult to harm the hostage if necessary
104
7 factors related to whether HIS occurs in hostage taking
Turner (1985) 7 factors
Face to face contact
Language
Sophistication of individuals
Cultural value structure
Timing of Violence
Time
Pre-existing Stereotypes
Manipulation
105
What might the true cause of HIS be?
social roles and rules, faulty scripts and script breakdown
106
Define kidnap
*A person is taken away and held at adifferent location against their will.
*Sometimes called an “abduction”.
*The location is usually unknown (at first). Balance of power…abandon the plan.
*More than one person can be kidnapped.E.g. a group of tourists, a team of journalists.
*Large groups of people are quite rare because it is hard for the hostage takers to maintain control…
*Overpowered, escape.
107
What looks like a kidnap but isn't?
Are they hostages instead?
* A person abducted in order to be killed which sometimes happens in political assassinations.
* Was there ever any intention to bargain over their release?
* This can be very hard to judge.
* An abduction and murder may be an assassination or a kidnap gone wrong.
* Where a person, usually a woman or girl, is abducted and kept captive. E.g. Ariel Castro case discovered in Cleveland 2013.
* Three young women abducted and held captive for years.
108
Define barricade siege
* A known location is taken over and the people there are held against their will.
* E.g. a private dwelling, an office, hotel, shopping mall.
* Authorities have the advantage because location is known.
* Hostage takers will now have to negotiate their way out, surrender or escape.
* Few hostage takers intend a suicide mission, although it might be back up plan.
* By definition there is bargaining to be done.
* The most frequent forms are non terrorist, e.g. domestic, criminal and prison hostage taking.
* Sometimes occurs when a different crime goes wrong, e.g. a robbery.
109
What looks like a barricade siege but isn't?
Hostages
* People present during bank raids and other robberies when the raiders take the money and leave.
* People hiding in hotel rooms during an armed assault.
110
Define hijack
* The taking of a form of transport with the passengers on board.
* You hear about planes; skyjacking is an old term.
* Still happen but most often not are terrorism.
* Other transport is also taken…
* Shipping (see also piracy and maritime terrorism.
* Piracy is not terrorism by definition and vice versa.
* Maritime terrorism involves more than taking boats.
* Busses, cars, even trains have been hijacked.
111
What looks like a hijack but isn't?
* No hostages or coercion
* Not re routed
* Not used for a different purpose
* The men on board were stowaways
* Possibly asylum seekers
* Also happens with planes
112
Plane hijacking indicators
* Can be of private aircraft.
* Most often commercial flights.
* Hijackers most often board the plane as passengers and don’t announce until after take off.
* Have similarities with kidnap at first…
* Because they are mobile and cannot be surrounded.
* Destination is limited by fuel (and permission to land).
* But once landed become barricade siege.
* Unless they can refuel and take off again.
113
What is a non hostage hijack?
* Confusingly, we also call the theft of a manned vehicle a hijack, even if the people are not taken.
* For example, drug smugglers who steal a private yacht.
* Whether they killed or ejected the occupants they did not take them along they only took the vehicle.
* Or a vehicle “hijacked” to use in crime or terrorism act e.g. the truck used in the Berlin Christmas market attack in 2016.
* The Polish driver was shot and the truck taken.
* Vehicle is used for transport, another purpose, or even held for ransom.
* If there are no people it is not a hostage taking incident
* However, sometimes even when there are people taken it is still not a hostage taking incident…9/11 - the people on board were never intended to be hostages - hostages are barganing chips, the intention was that they would all die in the attacks
114
Define a hostage
someone who is taken and used by a group as bargaining power to get something they want - money, transport, prisoner release etc
115
Hostages that are not hostages?
Human shields
Suicide by cop
on transport that is going to be intentionally destroyed with people on board
116
Can kidnap, barricade siege or hijacking overlap?
yes and frequently do - hijack turns into barricade siege etc
117
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Face to face contact
more interaction bet H and HT more likely HIS will occur
Sophisticated group will try to avoid this through:Gags/hooding
Rotation of guards - no conversation
Difficult for captor to maintain dehumanising strategies
118
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Language
H and HT must share the same language
can be interesting division of H in hijacking where some H share the same language of the HT but others do not
119
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Sophistication of individual
A H understanding of psychology of hostage taking can help the development of HIS.
HEAT training is used to develop this within groups like reporters about to go to areas of increased concern like warzones or politically unstable regions
120
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Direction of identification / Cultural value structure
guards of H generally followers of groups, therefore can be swayed by strong personalities. H tend to be people like diplomats who have these strong personalities that can sway the HT to their view.
121
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Violence
Specifically the timing of violence
violence in initial hostage taking or against a H that has provoked the HT is seen as acceptable by the other H and can accelerate HIS
Random violence, taunting H inhibits the development of HIS
122
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain Time
As time progresses, the close proximity breaks down pre existing stereotypes as subculture behaviour take over.
Time + positive factors = increased HIS likelihood
Time + negative factors = decreased likelihood on the part of HT frustration can be a negitive factor.
123
Turner (1985) 7 factors explain pre existing stereotypes
If there are pre held racism etc, then this can be a barrier for HIS to occur
124
Does Hostage Identification Syndrome exist?
APA definition of syndrome - indicate a particular physical or mental disease or disorder
APA disorder - abnormal behaviours or physiological conditions, persistent or intense distress, or a disruption of physiological functioning.
So, is this abnormal, or just a group of people developing social interactions in a normal way in an abnormal environment.
125
How do we define suspicious behaviour?
* Suspicious behaviour may be verbal or nonverbal.
* But is usually referring to actions or demeanour rather than words.
* There are many things that could be taken to be suspicious.
* And they may be indicators of a range of things: concealment of intent, aggression, nervousness, etc.
* Or they may not…
* How can we define what is actually suspicious behaviour?
* Often it is a subjective judgement based on
A) appearances and
B) the judge’s preconceptions/knowledge
126
How can we define base rates of 'normal' behaviour?
Make statements on what is expected behaviour - ie sitting while a plane is taxing, sterile zones etc
Observational trials to understand how poeple move in crowds, what they pack to go on holiday etc. then identify ways of seeing when these 'norms' are being breached
127
How do we decide what is unusual for a setting? (*)
Punk gig vs classical recital
128
Is unusual necessarily suspicious or is there more to it?
no, could be a indicator of someone with mental health issues - autism, ADD, or faulty scripting reverting them to a different course of action
129
What is the biggest issue with detecting anomalous behaviour?
has a big problem with false positives.
130
What is the relationship between suspicious, deceptive and nervous behaviour?
they overlap, in some situations and circumstances, quite significantly
131
How are terrorist attacks foiled?
Surveillance and significant proportion form public tip offs
132
Why are suspicious things not necessarily reported
Not seen as suspicious
Not wanting to cause undue disruption to self or others
Seen as wasting police time
Not wanting to talk to other passengers to clarify whether a bag is abandoned (parsons green bombing)
133
How can we get more reporting on suspicious events?
Education - adverts on public transport highlighting some things that might need reporting eg abandoned bags
Easy reporting mechanism - crimestoppers, 101 etc
134
Downsides for increased awareness? (*)
encourage fear? some political parties may see this as a feature not a bug, allows more authoritarian polices/legislation, playing down terrorism and attack occurs - they are naieve, play up threat and nothing happens, their polices are working
135
What is the bystander effect?
the hypothesis that the more people present, the less likely anyone will help.
136
Is the bystander effect important?
If it exists yes, but there is significant critical literature building that it does not exist, particularly in the way it was originally hypothesised as being people reluctant to help someone being murdered.
Most experiments require confederates who are instructed to ignore emergency situations (eg smoke), so you are testing whether someone is going to ignore danger indicators when all around are doing the same.
This is potentially not a real world test of peoples behaviours.
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How can the bystander effect be overcome?
increasing social responsibility
reminding people of the social norms
eg nudge theory and tax returns
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3 Types of 'anomalous' behaviour
suspicious
nervous
deceptive
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How can you generate rules for behaviour? (*)
use expert knowledge
- Tsung-Yuan et al 2009
- boat navigation to identify behaviours of suspicion
Experimental - but can only test simple conditions, cannot replicate emergencies etc
observation - good for real world data, but difficult to get information about what was happening with suspicious behaviour if any is observed
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how are terrorist plots foiled?
usually by a sequence of events, not a one and done interaction
usually by initial surveillance (sometimes tip off required to kick start the surveillance), then followed up by infiltration of informant or police raid
141
two main causes of terrorist plot disruption
Surveillance and informant
these cover 2/3rds of cases reviewed by Crenshaw et al 2017
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types of tip off that help foil plots?
store owners concerned about purchases
Relatives concerned about radicalisation
social media posts reported
143
cons about looking for public tip offs (x2)
increases the state of fear
false positives
144
How did see something say something work?
provided scenarios, behaviour types or simple observations people might come across and highlight that it could be normal, but let law enforcement decide
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How did UK see it say it sorted work?
provides vignettes eg someone photographing cameras, abandoned bag etc and provides a contact for the information to go to that is not the emergency 999 number
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What ways are used to detect deception?
Psychological
verbal
nonverbal
behavioural
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Does the polygraph test work?
Nope, it does not detect lies and can be easily defeated by someone tensing parts of their body when answering each questions
They detect nervousness, so someone innocent and very nervous, or a pathological liar will generate false results when asked if they are lying.
It can act as a way to facilitate honest answers from someone close to revealing information by giving them an excuse of having their agency being removed by the device
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Is the polygraph test ethical?
well.....ethics are a luxury of the leading groups in an area.
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What is 'non verbal behaviour'?
a technical term that means the movements of a person’s body or face. It does not mean any behaviour that is not verbal, e.g. physiological reactions.
150
Define 'body language'
facial micro expressions
Gestures
limb movement
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Body language Cause, effect and explanation. What is the mechanism?
these is none - Wiseman et al 2012 concluded there is no scientific suipport for NLP eye movements
152
What are the 3 theoretical predictions on how non verbal behaviour might reveal someone who is lying
* Theories based on Emotion
* Cognitive Theories
* Attempted Control Theories
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Define Theories based on Emotion
Non verbal behaviour mechanism: Emotion theories are based on the idea that liars are more nervous and concerned about the interview. Emotional response arising from guilt/fear will produce features such as increased movement (agitation).
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Define Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories are based on the fact that it is harder to make up a lie than tell the truth. Concentrating on the lie will result in decreased movement.
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Define Attempted Control Theories
These theories hold that the liar will deliberately try to avoid giving themselves away resulting in less movement.
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What experimental designs are there for studying deception?
Aldert Vrij et al (2010).
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What is 'active deception detection'?
Vrji et all 2010
requires a cognitive interview where the cognitive load on the interviewee is increased with a view that liars cannot keep up consistently with the questions being asked.
eg ask for elements to recalled in reverse order
number of people
order people were sat
who was wearing what etc
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Define Statement Validity Analysis
looks at the choice of words being used, statements such as 'I am not guilty' mean you do not have guilt about the crime and that its impossible for a guilty person to say things like 'I didn't do it'
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Ways people try to detect lies
polygraph
MRI
'Reading' body language
Analysis of non-verbal behaviour
TSA SPOT checklist
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define single issue terrorism
Focus on things like environment, nuclear, abortion, animal rights etc
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define lone wolf terrorism
the perpetrator acts alone without direction from an outside group.
In some cases such as the Columbine High School massacre, two students shot and killed 12 students and one teacher. This still meets the academic definition of lone actor shooting, because the perpetrators carried out the killings without direction from anyone else
the killings occurred in a public situation.
Mass murders such as familicides where one member of a family kills all other members in the family home are not considered as lone actor shootings.
the murders were not committed as part of some other criminal act such as a robbery or as part of gang conflict in which multiple individuals are shot.
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Are all definitions the same?
no
163
What can 'Lone' mean?
Lone as in not conected to an organisation; or Lone as in only one attacker
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What factors might mobilise a person to take part in terrorist activity?
Significant life event
Mental health
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What is radicalisation?
a process through which an individual, group, or community become more extreme in their attitude OR behaviour
166
McCauley and Moskalenko mechanisms for radicalisation?
Individual
Group
Mass
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What is the two pyramid model?
McCauley and Moskalenko 2017
Opinion and Action are two separate pyramids with increasing radicalised behaviour as you go up. It demonstrates that there is no conveyor belt to terrorism as someone can have low radicalisation of opinion yet display radicalisation of actions
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2 pyramid model, what are the layers in the action side?
Inert
Activists
Radicals
Terrorists
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2 pyramid model, what are the layers in the opinion side?
Neutral
Sympathisers
Justifiers
Personal Moral obligation
170
What is the difference between radicalisation of opinion and radicalisation of behaviour?
Opinion is your views on a topic
Behaviour is potential to act based on a topic
Both are mutually exclusive which indicates there is no conveyor belt to terrorism
171
What is deradicalisation?
a cognitive change, usually the result of a reorientation in belief or ideology
172
What is disengagement?
a behavioral change, usually the result of breaking off participation in terrorism
173
what are the differences between deradicalization and disengagement?
Deradicalisation is the stepping back from opinions,
disengagement is the stepping back from activities,
as they are mutually exclusive then someone can be a threat even if they are deradicalised
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Decision factors present in those who voluntarily give up terrorist activity? X2
Disillusionment
Positive social relationships (ISIS approach to create communities to avoid this?)
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Individual reasons for radicalisation (x4)
Personal victimisation
Personal grievance
Join radical group slippery slope
Join radical group love
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Group reasons for radicalisation (x5)
Extreme shift in like minded groups
Extreme cohesion under isolation and threat
Competition for same base of support
Competition for state power (condensation)
Within group competition (fissioning)
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Mass reasons for radicalisation (x3)
Jujitsu politics
Hate
Martyrdom
