CACREP AREA: Research and Program Evaluation Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
The most valuable type of research is…?
A
the experiment — used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
2
Q
Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means interpreting the results…?
A
Interpreting the results in the simplest way
HINT:
In research, parsimony is strived for as it is the easiest and less complex expklanation
Parsimony: In research, it means using the simplest explanation that fits the data without adding extra assumptions.
3
Q
Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters interpret the results…?
A
interpret the results in the simplest manner
HINT: Parsimony is also referred to as Occam’s Razor, which is a principle of economics.
4
Q
A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is secretly seeing a gestalt therapist.
This experiment is…?
A
is confounded/flawed
5
Q
Nondirective is to person-centered as ___?___ is to ___?___
A
parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.
5
Q
An experiment is said to be confounded when…?
A
Undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiement
NOTE: CPCE may refer to this as “contaminating variable”
HINT:
Cofounding = Happens when an uncontrolled, unwanted variable affects the experiment’s results; the researcher is not in control of this
6
Q
In experimental terminology IV stands for ___?___ and DV stands for ___?___
A
independent variable; dependent variable
HINT:
IV = variable the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, etc. in the experiment
DV = expresses the outcome, or the data
7
Q
A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams.
If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ___?___ and the DV will be the ___?___
A
biofeedback; board exam score
8
Q
Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the
A
IV or independent variable.
9
Q
In order for the professor of counselor education (see question
708) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a(n) ___?___ and a(n) ___?___
A
control group; experimental group
9
Q
Footnote
In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in question 708 the experimental group would need to receive what?
HINT: Multiple answers
A
1) the manipulated IV
2) the biofeedback training
10
Q
Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of which theorist?
A
R. A. Fisher.
HINT:
Null hypothesis = the idea that nothing is happening or changing. It’s what you assume to be true until you have evidence to show otherwise.
In other words, THE IV DOES NOT AFFECT THE DV
11
Q
The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the
IV and the control group which did not.
Thus, if the experiment in question 708 was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that…?
A
biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
12
Q
The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative hypothesis.
The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV).
Thus, if the experiment in question 708 were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that…?
A
the biofeedback would raise board scores
13
Q
From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group (which does not receive the IV or experimental manipulation) to the experimental group the researcher will need do a…?
A
A test of significance.
HINT: Statistical tests (like test of significance) are used to determine whether a difference in the groups’ score is significant or just due to chance factors
14
Q
When you see the letter P in relation to a test of significance it means…?
A
Probability
HINT:
In research, the probability (P) is usually set at .05 or lower (ex: .01 or .001)
15
Q
In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually
A
.05 or less.
HINT:
The two most popular levels of significance are:
1) .05
2) .01
15
Q
P = .05 really means that…?
A
there is only a 5% chance that the difference between the control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors.
16
Q
P = 05 really means that…?
A
differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.
16
Q
The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P = …?
A
.001
HINT:
The smaller the value for P (probability) = the more strict/precise the level of significance
Here, .001 level is the most strict/precise level that indicates there is only one chance in 1000 that the results are due to chance
17
Q
Type I and Type II errors are called ___?___ and ___?___ respectively.
A
alpha; beta
HINT:
Type I error (alpha error) = occurs when researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true
Type II error (beta error) = occurs when researcher accepts the null hypothesis when it is false
17
Q
A Type I error occurs when you…?
A
you reject null when it is true
18
Q
Footnote
What is true of a Type II error
HINT: Multiple answers
A
1) it is also called a beta error
2) it means you accept null when it is false.
19
Q
Assume the experiment in question 708 is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case.
The researcher has made which type of error?
A
Type I error
20
A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment.
This will do what?
reduce Type I and Type II errors.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Raising the size of the sample helps lower the risk of chance/error factors
21
If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, what will occur?
alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
22
A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while control group does not.
In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize what?
the student's t test.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
A t-est is used to compare two sample groups; this is a simple form of the analysis variance (ANOVA)
23
The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third receives six sessions.
The statistic of choice would be the…?
ANOVA
## Footnote
**HINT:**
An ANOVA (aka one-way analysis of variance) is used when there is more than one level of a single IV (independent variable)
24
If the researcher in the previous question (question 728) utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be the…?
two-way ANOVA or MANOVA.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Two IV's (independent variables) requires a two way ANOVA
25
To complete a t test you would consult a tabled value of t.
In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would consult…?
A table for F values.
26
Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?
.001
27
When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured.
In cases such as this, a correlation coefficient will reveal what?
The relationship between IQ and panic disorder
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Correlation Coefficient = A number that shows how strongly two variables are related, ranging from -1 to 1. Often expressed a "*r*"
1) Positive Correlation Coefficient: Indicates that as one variable increases, the other also increases.
* EX: More study hours are linked to higher test scores.
2) Negative Correlation Coefficient: Indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.
* EX: More hours of TV watching are linked to lower test scores.
28
If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counselor licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be…?
positive
29
Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?
Length in inches and length in centimeters.
30
A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of
CACREP graduates' baby toes with their CPCE scores the result would be…?
close to 0.00 (there’s an absence of association as these have no relation)
31
Dr. X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90.
A student who perused (read/examined) Dr. X's research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented.
The student is incorrect because…?
correlation does NOT imply causal.
32
Behaviorists often utilize N = 1, which is called intensive experimental design.
The first step in this approach would be to do what?
take a baseline measure
## Footnote
**HINT:**
N = number of people being studied or the sample size
Baseline measure = the initial data collected to assess the starting point of a condition or behavior before any changes or interventions are made.
32
In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group.
This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is an example of…?
single-blind study
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Single blind study = the subject would not know whether they are a member of the control gorup or the experiemental group, but the researcher does
This helps eliminate Demand Characteristics:
* Clues/signals in an experiment that cause participants to guess the purpose of the study, leading them to change their behavior to fit what they think is expected.
33
A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy.
Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students received the new treatment. This is an example of…?
double-blind study
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Double blind study = BOTH the subject and researcher would not know whether they are a member of the control group or the experiemental group
This helps eliminate confounding variables caused by experimental effect:
* experimental effects can flaw an experiment as the researcher might unconsciously communicate their intent/expectations to the subjects
34
Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to…?
degree of relationship
34
In a normal curve the mean, the median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve.
From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) looks like what?
A symmetrical bell
35
The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.
The mode is…?
the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Modal score = hgihest point on the curve
35
A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e,, most frequently occurring scores).
Graphically, this looks roughly like what?
a camel's back with two humps
36
In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon, the point of maximum concentration is the…?
mode
37
The most useful measure of central tendency is the
mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Central tendency = mean (average)
38
In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour.
The counselor is using…?
the mean
38
From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores.
The mean is misleading when what occurs?
#Footnote
**HINT:** Multiple answers
1) the distribution is skewed
2) there are extreme scores
39
When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally, statisticians call it what?
A skewed distribution
## Footnote
**HINT:**
In a skewed distirbution, left and right side of the curve aren't mirror images
The mean, mode, and median fall at different points in a skewed distribution but fall at the same point in a normal curve
40
The median is…?
The middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
***To find the median in an even set of numbers, follow these steps:***
1) Order the Numbers: Arrange the numbers in ascending order.
2) Identify the Middle Two Numbers: Since the set is even, there will be two middle numbers.
3) Calculate the Median: Find the average of these two middle numbers by adding them together and dividing by 2.
**Example:**
For the set {3, 5, 7, 9}, the middle two numbers are 5 and 7. The median = (5 + 7) / 2 = 6.
41
In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV.
She will use a ___?___ design
Factorial
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Factorial Experiment: A type of experiment where researchers study the effects of two or more independent variables (factors) at the same time, testing every possible combination of these variables.
* This approach helps identify both the individual effects of each factor and any interaction effects between them.
42
Regardless of the shape, the ___?___ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.
Mode
## Footnote
**HINT:** Mode is the highest because its the point where the most frequently occuring score falls
43
A group of first-semester graduate students in counseling took an experimental counseling exam that was much more difficult than the NCE. All of the students scored very low.
A distribution of their scores would…?
Be positively skewed.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Positive Skew: When the tail of a distribution is longer on the right side, indicating that most data points are clustered on the left.
THE TALE INDICATES WHETHER THE DISTRIBUTION IS POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY SKEWED
44
Nine of the world's finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. Needless to say, all of them scored extremely high.
The distribution of scores would most likely be…?
negatively skewed.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Negative skew = When the tail of a distribution is longer on the left side, indicating that most data points are clustered on the right
THE TALE INDICATES WHETHER THE DISTRIBUTION IS POSITIVELY OR NEGATIVELY SKEWED
44
Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billys rav score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered.
A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically.
Billy's raw score indicates that…?
more information is obviously necessary
44
A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph, which is also called a…?
Histogram
45
When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution it is known as…?
The X axis
## Footnote
**HINT:**
X axis (aka abscissa) = horizontal axis which is used as a scale for the independent variable
46
The x axis is used to plot the IV scores.
The x axis could also be called the ___?___ on your exam
abscissa
47
The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs.
The y axis could also be called the…?
ordinate
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Y axis (aka ordinate) = vertical axis which is used as a scale for the dependent variable
48
If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that the…?
the researcher is working with two distinct populations.
49
If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment is…?
said to be reliable.
50
The range is a measure of variance and usually is calculated by determining the difference between the highest and the lowest score.
Thus, on a test where the top score was a 93 and the lowest score was a 33 out of 100, the range would be…?
61
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Range is the simplest way to measure the spread of scores
***To find the range:*** subtract the lowest score from the hgiest (i.e., 93 - 33 = 60)
51
A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to…?
A correlation coefficient
## Footnote
**HINT:** A scattergram (aka scatterplot) is a pictorial diagram or graph of two variables being correlated
52
A counselor educator is teaching two separate classes in individual inventory. In the morning class the counselor educator has 53 students and in the afternoon class she has 177 students.
A statistician would expect that the range of scores on a test would be…?
greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.
## Footnote
**HINT:** The range generally increases with sample size
52
The variance is a measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency. The variance is the standard deviation squared. A popular IQ test has a standard deviation (SD) of 15.
A counselor would expect that if the mean IQ score is 100, then…?
68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115.
52
Using the data in question 764, one could say that a person with an IQ score of 122 would fall within…?
+ or - 2 SD of the mean
## Footnote
**HINT:** the greater the SD, the greater the spread
53
The standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance. A z-score of +1 would be the same as…?
1 SD above the mean
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Z scores = same as standard deviations and often called standard scores
Z score of +/- 1 SD would include about 34% of the cases in a normal population
53
Z-scores (also called standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a z-score of -2.5 means what?
2.5 SD below the mean.
54
A t-score is different from a z-score. A z-score is the same as the SD. A t-score, however, has a mean of 50 with every 10 points landing at a SD above or below the mean.
Thus a t-score of 60 would equal +1 SD while a t-score of 40 would be…?
-1 SD.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
A t-score using a mean of 50 with each SD as 10. Thus, a z score of -1.0 wiuld be a t-score of 40
54
An IQ score on an IQ test which was 3 SD above the mean would be…?
Very superior
## Footnote
**HINT:**
99% of population will score between +/- 3 SD of the mean; therefore less than 1% of population would score at a level 3 SD above the mean
55
A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like…?
the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Playtykurtic = a distribution curve that is flatter and more spread out than a normal curve, with fewer outliers and a lower peak
Leptokurtic = a distribution that is a very tall peak more than a normal distribution, with more outliers.
56
Test scores on an exam that fell below 3 SD of the mean or above 3 SD of the mean could be described as…?
Extreme
56
In World War Il the Air Force used stanine scores as a measurement. Stanine scores divide the distribution into nine equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest ninth and 9 as the highest ninth. In this system 5 is the mean.
Thus a Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine (standard) of…?
5
57
There are four basic measurement scales: the nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ratio. The nominal scale is strictly a qualitative scale. It is the simplest type of scale. It is used to distinguish logically separated groups.
Which of the following illustrates the function of the nominal scale?
A DSM or ICD diagnostic category.
58
The ordinal scale rank orders variables, though the relative distance between the elements is not always equal.
An example of this would be…?
a horse categorized as a second-place winner in a race.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Ordinal Scale = Ranks items in order but doesn’t show how much better one is compared to another.
* EX: Ranking your favorite movies from 1st to 5th.
Nominal Scale = Categorizes items without any order or ranking.
* EX: Sorting movies into genres like action, comedy, or drama.
59
The interval scale has numbers scaled at equal distances but has no absolute zero point. Most tests used in school fall into this category. You can add and subtract using interval scales but cannot multiply or divide.
An example of this would be that…?
An IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70.
## Footnote
**HINT:** IQ tests provide interval measurement
59
A ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero point. Ratio measurements are possible using this scale. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be utilized on a ratio scale.
In terms of counseling research, what is true regarding ratio scales?
most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Ratio scale = highest level of measurement
**EX:** time, height, weight, temperature, volume, and distance meer the requirements of this scale
60
Researchers often utilize naturalistic observation when doing ethological investigations or studying children's behavior.
In this approach, the researcher…?
the researcher does not manipulate or control variables.
## Footnote
**HINT:** In naturalistic observations, the researcher does NOT intervene
61
The simplest form of descriptive research is the ___?___ which requires a questionnaire return or completion rate of ___?___ to be accurate
survey; 50-75%
62
A researcher gives a depressed patient a sugar pill and the individual's depression begins to lift.
This is known as what?
the placebo effect.
63
A researcher notes that a group of clients who are not receiving counseling, but are observed in a research study, are improving.
Her hypothesis is that the attention she has given them has been curative.
The best explanation of their improvement would be…?
Hawthorne effect
63
An elementary school counselor tells the third-grade teacher that a test revealed that certain children will excel during the school year. In reality, no such test was administered. Moreover, the children were unaware of the experiment. By the end of the year, all of the children who were supposed to excel did excel!
This would best be explained via…?
the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
The Rosenthal effect (or experimenter expectancy effect) = when a researcher’s expectations or beliefs about a participant influence how they interact with them, which can affect the participant’s performance.
* For example, if a researcher expects a participant to do well, they might unintentionally give them more support, leading the participant to perform better.
64
A panel of investigators discovered that a researcher who completed a major study had unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors.
This is an example of…?
the Halo effect.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Halo effect occurs when a trait, which is not being evaluated (such as activeness or how well the person is liked) influences a researchers rating on another trait (such as their counseling skill)
***IN OTHER WORDS...*** Halo Effect is when a person's overall impression of someone (or something) influences their judgments about specific traits or behaviors.
* For example, if you think someone is nice, you might also assume they are smart, even if you have no evidence for it.
64
All of the following describe the analysis of covariance technique except…?
It is a correlation coefficient.
65
Three years ago an inpatient addiction treatment center in a hospital asked their clients if they would like to undergo an archaic form of therapy created by Wilhelm Reich known as
"vegotherapy."
Approximately half of the clients stated they would like try the treatment while the other 50% stated that they would stick with the tried-and-true program of the center.
Outcome data on their drinking was compiled at the end of seven weeks. Today-three years later—a statistician compared the two groups based on their drinking behavior at the end of the seven weeks using a t test.
This study could best be described as an example of…?
causal comparative research.
## Footnote
**HINT:** In this case, the groups were not randomly assigned and the current researcher did not truly control the IV in the study (since it took place three years ago)
66
The WAIS-IV IQ test is given to 100 adults picked randomly.
How many of the adults most likely would receive an IQ score between 85 and 115?
68
## Footnote
**HINT:**
In a normal distirbution, approximately 68% of the population will fsll between +/- 1 SD of the mean
***simple breakdown of normal distribution scores and their percentages***:
1) 68% of scores fall within +/- 1 standard deviation from the mean (both above and below).
2) 95% of scores fall within +/-2 standard deviations from the mean.
3) 99.7% of scores fall within +/-3 standard deviations from the mean.
This is often referred to as the **68-95-99.7 Rule or Empirical Rule**.
67
A researcher creates a new motoric test in which clients throw a baseball at a target 40 feet away. Each client is given 100 throws, and the mean on the test is 50. (In other words, out of 100 throws the mean number of times the client will hit the target is 50 times.)
Sam took the test and hit the target just two times out of the 100 throws allowed. Jeff, on the other hand, hit the target an amazing 92 times out of 100 trials.
Using the concept of statistical regression toward the mean the research would predict what?
That Sam's score will increase while Jeffs will go down.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Statistical regression = predicts that very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again
68
Standardized tests always have what?
A formal procedures for test administration and scoring
68
There are two distinct types of developmental studies. In a cross-sectional study, clients are assessed at one point in time.
In a longitudinal study, however, the…?
the same people are studied over a period of time.
69
counselor educator, Dr. Y, is doing research on his classes. He hypothesizes that if he reinforces students in his morning class by smiling each time a student asks a relevant question, then more students will ask questions and exam grades will go up.
Betty and Linda accidentally overhear Dr. Y discussing the experiment with the department chair. Betty is a real people pleaser and decides that she will ask lots of questions and try to help Dr. Y confirm his hypothesis. Linda, nevertheless, is angry that she is being experimented on and promises Betty that Dr. Y could smile until the cows came in but she still wouldn't ask a question.
Both Linda and Betty exemplify what?
Demand characteristics of an experiment
69
If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on ___?___ to test significant differences between group means.
Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test
70
Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study is known as…?
counterbalancing.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
Counterbalancing = used to control for the fact that the order of an experiement can impact upon its outcome, thus order change is made
71
A doctoral student who begins working on his bibliography for his thesis would most likely utilize what resource?
ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center), for primary and secondary resources
## Footnote
**HINT:** ERIC is a resource bank for scholary literature/resources to help one complete their literture review before writing ther research paper
72
In a random sample each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Selection is by chance. In a new study, however, it will be important to include 20% African Americans.
What type of sampling procedure will be necessary?
Stratified sampling would be best.
73
A researcher wants to run a true experiment but insists she will not use a random sample.
You could safely say that…?
she could accomplish this using systematic sampling.
74
What is true regarding an operational definition?
It outlines a procedure.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
***IMPORTANT CONCEPTS TO KNOW:***
1) Sampling Error: The difference between the results from a sample and the actual results from the entire population. It’s the error that occurs because you’re only looking at a part of the whole.
2) Population Parameter: A value that describes a characteristic of the entire population, such as the average or proportion.
75
In a parametric test the assumption is that the scores are normally distributed. In nonparametric testing the curve is not a normal distribution.
Which of these tests are nonparametric statistical measures?
#Footnote
**HINT:** Multiple answers
All of the above are nonparametic tests:
1) Mann-Whitney U test (or just the U test)
2) Wilcoxon signed-rank test for matched pairs
3) Soloman and the Kruskal-Wallis H test
## Footnote
**HINT:**
NOTE: CPCE may refer to nonparametic statistical tests/measures as "distirbution-free tests"
76
A researcher studies a single session of counseling in which a counselor treats a client's phobia using a paradoxical strategy.
He then writes in his research report that paradox is the treatment of choice for phobics.
This is an example of…?
inductive logic or reasoning.
## Footnote
**HINT:**
This is an example of inductive reasoning since the research goes from the specific to a generalization
***Inductive Reasoning:*** Starts with specific observations and makes a general conclusion.
77
A client goes to a string of 14 chemical dependency centers that operate on the 12-step model.
When his current therapist suggests a new inpatient program the client responds with, “What for, I already know the 12 steps?" This client is using…?
Deductive logic
## Footnote
**HINT:**
This is an example of deductive logic because the client assumes that the general (that being his experience in 14 treatment facilities) can be reduced to the specific (that being the new treatment program)
***Deductive Reasoning =*** Starts with a general idea and uses it to reach/reduce to a specific conclusion.
78
Mike takes a math achievement test. In order to predict his score if he takes the test again the counselor must know the…?
the standard error of measurement (SEM).
## Footnote
**HINT:** SEM tells the counselor what would most likely occur if the same person took the same test again
79
A researcher performs a study that has excellent external or so-called population validity, meaning that the results have generalizability.
To collect his data the researcher gave clients a rating scale in which they were to respond with strongly agree, somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree.
This is an example of…?
A Likert Scale
