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Cancer Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the most common cancer in females?

A

Breast Cancer

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2
Q

What % of cancer cases are preventable?

A

38

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3
Q

What is the most common cancer among males?

A

Prostate

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4
Q

What are the main characters of cancer?

A

Cancer displayed uncontrolled growth
* the balance between cell division and differentiation is disrupted
* the balance between cell survival and apoptosis is disrupted
* Invasion and metastasis are common features

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5
Q

What is meant by invasion?

A

The process by which cancer cells penetrate and spread into surrounding tissues. This occurs when malignant cells break through the basement membrane and invade adjacent normal tissues

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6
Q

Define metastasis.

A

The spread of cancer cells from the original (primary) tumor to distant organs or tissues through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, forming secondary tumors (metastases)

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7
Q

What is a core feature of cancer?

A

Uncontrolled growth

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8
Q

What are 2 main features of cancer

A

Invasion
Metastasis

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9
Q

Define tumour

A

an abnormal mass of cells, benign and malignant growth

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10
Q

What’s the diff between primary and secondary tumour?

A

Primary- tumour at initial site
Secondary- tumour spreads to other tissues or organs

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11
Q

Is cancer a benign or malignant tumour?

A

Malignant

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12
Q

Define carcinogenesis?

A

the process by which a normal cell is transformed into a malignant cell and repeatedly divides to become a cancer.

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13
Q

Define neoplasia

A

Abnormal growth of cells.
2 types of neoplasia are benign and malignant (cancer)

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14
Q

Define anaplasia

A

Anaplasia is the loss of the normal characteristics and structure of cells, often seen in cancerous cells, where they become undifferentiated and exhibit abnormal growth and behavior.

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15
Q

Define dysplasia

A

dysplasia is a precancerous condition where cells appear abnormal, but they haven’t yet invaded nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body.

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16
Q

Diff between dysplasia and anaplasia

A

Dysplasia = Early warning sign of cancer (cells look abnormal but still have some organization).
Anaplasia = Full-blown cancer (cells are completely disorganized and aggressive).

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17
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Hyperplasia is the increased growth or proliferation of cells in a tissue or organ, leading to its enlargement.

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18
Q

Hypoplasia

A

Hypoplasia is the underdevelopment or incomplete development of an organ or tissue,

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19
Q

Hypetrophy

A

is an increase in the size of an organ
due to an increase in cell size without an increase in
cell number.

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20
Q

Aplasia

A

Aplasia is the complete absence or failure of development of an organ or tissue

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21
Q

Benign prostatic hyperplasia is non-cancerous enlargement of prostate gland due to what?

A

overgrowth of prostate cells

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22
Q

What’s adenoma

A

Benign tumour
Arises from glandular epithelium
Does not invade other tissues

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23
Q

Adenocarcinoma

A

malignant tumour
also originates from glandular epithelium
Can invade and metastize

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23
Q

Histologial features of benign tumour

A

Normal nuclei
Similar to tissue of origin
Cells are cohesive
Cells uniform in shape and size
Solid bening tumour is surrounded by fibrous capsule

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24
Histological features of malignant tumour
different from tissue of origin Nuclei enlarged and abnormal mitotic figures Cells variable in shape, size and polarity Cells are not cohered
25
Clinical effects of malignant tumout
tissue destructive effects hormone secretion Will kill host if untreated Not cured by local excision
26
Clinical features of benign tumour
local pressure effects usually does not cause host cell death cured by excision
27
What happens to organelles in normal and cancer cells?
Normal = large cytoplasm, single nucleus, single nucleolus, fine chromatin Cancer = small cytoplasm, multple nucleus, multiple nucleoi, coarse chromatin
28
Individual risk of developing cancer depends on which factors?
age, lifestyle factors and genetic makeup More than 40% of all cancers in the UK are linked to tobacco, smoking, alcohol, diet, obese, infecion, radiation
29
Why does cancer rate increase with age
a series of mutations in cancer-related genes occur over a long period of time * older people has prolonged exposure to carcinogens like smoking, uv * changes in tissues and organs with advancing age renders cells’ microenvironment more favourable to the development of cancer o less-effective DNA damage-repair mechanisms o weakening of the immune system
30
Being smoke free can prevent how many years of cancer
15
31
Alcohol can increase the risk of which cancer
Skin
32
What are nitrosamines and why are they dangerous
chemical compound formed when nitrate reacts with amine. These are potent carcinogens with a particular association with cancers in the digestive system, such as esophageal and gastric cancers.
33
What are radons and what thype of cancer do they cause
Radon is a radioactive gas that comes from the natural decay of uranium in soil, rocks, and water. When inhaled, radon particles can damage lung cells, increasing the risk of lung cancer.
34
Carcinogens
susbtances which increase the risk of developing cancer
35
Xeroderma pigmentosum
rare genetic disorder which affects skin. Caused by defective dna repair mechanism in response to UV light
36
Onco and TSM
Onco- stimulate cell division. TSM- inhibit cell division
37
How many mutant alleles of onco and TSM genes are needed to cause cancer
One - onco Two - TSG
38
Proto-onco gene vs oncogene
Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that exist in our cells. Their job is to help cells grow and divide in a controlled way, like during normal development or healing. Oncogenes: When a proto-oncogene mutates (changes), it becomes an oncogene. An oncogene is like a broken "on" switch — it stays stuck in the "on" position, causing the cell to grow and divide too much and too quickly, which can lead to cancer.
39
Are proto or onco dominant
Oncogenes are usually dominant. This means that you only need one bad copy of the gene (out of the two copies you have) to cause problems. So, if you have one mutated proto-oncogene (oncogene), it’s enough to make the cell grow out of control. You don’t need both copies to be bad — just one is enough to cause cancer.
40
Most oncogenes occur as which mutations
somatic
41
Which are the common mutations which convert proto-onco genes to onco genes
Point mutation: A small change in DNA that makes a gene constantly active (e.g., a receptor that always signals for growth). Translocation: A part of one chromosome moves to another chromosome, activating a proto-oncogene in the wrong location (e.g., BCR-ABL in leukemia). Amplification: A gene is copied multiple times, leading to overproduction of proteins that drive excessive cell growth (e.g., HER2 in breast cancer).
42
What are 3 oncogenes and their functions
RAS- Is involved in kinase signalling pathways that ultimately control transcription of genes, regulating cell growth and differentiation MYC- encodes transcription factors and controls expression of several genes HER-2/neu encodes for a cell surface receptor that can stimulate cell division. The HER-2/neu gene is amplified in up to 30% of human breast cancers
43
TSG and their functions
p53: a transcription factor that regulates cell division and cell death. Rb: alters the activity of transcription factors and therefore controls cell division. APC: controls the availability of a transcription factor
44
Which gene is guardian of genome
p53
45
What's APC
Adenomous Polyposis Coli gene Located on chromosome 5 TSG Main roles: Stops cell from dividing too much, promotes differentiation and facilitates apoptosis in damaged cells
46
How does cancer start
Normal Cell ⬇️ (Initiation by carcinogen) Transformed Cell Features: Metaplasia and Hyperplasia ⬇️ (Promotion by tannin, TPA) Tumor Cell (Benign) Features- hyperplasia ⬇️ (Progression) Cancer Cell (Malignant) Features- anaplasia ⬇️ (Metastasis) Secondary Cancer Cell
47
Wht are 5 classification of cancers
Teratoma Carcinoma Sarcoma Leukaemia and Lymphoma Blastoma
48
What does teratoma arise from?
Germs cells ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
49
What does carcinoma arise from
epithelial cells- makes upto 90% of cancers
50
What does sarcoma arise from?
connective tissue like bones, muscle, fat e.g. osteosarcoma
51
What does Leukaemia or lymphoma arise from
From blood-forming tissues Leukemia- abnormal WBCs in blood Kymphoma - from lmyphocytes in lymphatic system
52
What does blastoma arise from
From precursor cells E.g. neuroblastoma arises from nerve tissues
53
Which is the most common bladder cancer
Transitional cell carcinoma
54
Why is carcinoma more common than others
Carcinomas arise in epithelial cells. These tumours constitute 90% of human cancers, 80% of the cancer-related deaths in the western world. ▪ Epithelia are cells that cover the internal and external surfaces of the body and its organs. ▪ Epithelial cells cover and protect other tissues, most epithelial cells are exposed to a variety of traumas (e.g. mechanical force, environmental trauma, and damaging agents) ▪ Epithelial cells progress through the cell cycle more frequently than most other cells. The high frequency of division means that these cells are more likely to mistakenly pass mutations on to their progeny cells.
55
How is cancer staged
TNM system
56
What does T stand for in TNM
Tumour - demonstrates the size and spread of primary tumour into adjacent organs. T1- T4
57
What does N stand for
Nodes demonstrates spread to nearby lymph nodes N0 - N2
58
What does M stand for
Metastasis- spread to other organs M0- M1
59
T2 N1 M0
Medium-sized tumour, some lymph node involvement, no metasis
60
How is cancer graded?
Based on 4 grades: Grade 1- well differentiated- cancer looks similar to normal cells G2- moderately differentiated- cells are more abnormal than grade 1 G3- poorly differentiated G4- undifferentiated - most aggressive
61
How is cancer diagnosed?
Through signs and symptoms- the presence of a lump in the breast or testicles, unusual bleeding, changes in a mole... Screening- PAP smear test Routine investigations - X-rays and blood tests Imaging methods- MRI, CT,PET, ultrasound Endoscopy- colon cancer Biopsy Genetic testing Special investigations (Catecholamine serum levels in neuroblastoma)
62
Define hyperchromasia
Increased staining of nucleus The nuclei of these cells appear darker than normal because they contain more DNA or tightly packed chromatin.
63
Metaplasia
Metaplasia is a reversible change in which one mature cell type is replaced by another mature cell type that is not normally found in that tissue. It’s an adaptive response to chronic irritation, inflammation, or injury. The new cell type is usually better suited to survive the stress. 🧬 Key Points: Not cancer, but can increase cancer risk if the irritation continues.
64
What are the diagnostic methods which are not commonly used?
Special investigations (eg. Catecholamine serum levels in neuroblastoma) * Surgical biopsy (Histopathology of tissue-appearance; immunohistochemistry; histochemistry; electron microscopy) * Genetic testing BRCA1 – breast and ovarian cancer BRCA2 – breast cancer APC (adenomatous polyposis coli gene) – FAPC colon cancer P53 – Li-Fraumeni syndrome MLH1, MSH2 – HNPCC (hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer)
65
Cancer treatment is determined by which factors?
how aggressive the tumour is morbidity/mortality of patients from treatment procedure cure rate of treatment
66
How are survival outcomes measured in cancer
Five-Year Survival with No Recurrence: This is a common way to measure survival outcomes. If a patient survives for five years after treatment without the cancer returning, it’s often considered a sign of long-term survival.
67
What are treatments for cancers
radiotherapy, immunotherapy, surgery, chemotherapy, bone marrow transplants, hormone therapy and gene therapy

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