Respiratory pathology

Question 1

what does cellular respiration consist of?

Answer 1

internal respiration - chemical processes inside the body

Question 2

What does mechanical respiration consist of

Answer 2

external respiration- physical act of breathing

Question 3

Steps involved in external respiration

Answer 3

Air drawn into lungs via inhalation.
Oxygen is extracted in lung parenchyma, where it’s trasferred to the vascular system.
CO2 is transferred from blood into air.
After gaseous exchange, air is transferred into atmosphere via exhalation

Question 4

What happens to ribs during inhalation

Answer 4

Contraction of intercoastal muscles-
Ribs move upwards
Thoracic volume increased
air pressure in lungs decreases
air moved into the lungs

Question 5

What happens to diaphragm during inhalation

Answer 5

Contracts
Moves downwards
Volume of thoracic cavity increased
Lowe air pressure in lungs
Air moves into the lungs

Question 6

What happens during exhalation

Answer 6

relaxation of intercostal muscles & diaphragm > return
of diaphragm, ribs, & sternum to resting position
Thoracic volume decreases
increases pressure in lungs
air is exhaled

Question 7

What does upper respirator tract involve

Answer 7

Nose
Nasal cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx, larynx
Trachea

Question 8

Wha does lower respiratory tract involve

Answer 8

Trache, Bronchi and bronchioles, Lungs

Question 9

What are paranasal sinuses and how many are there?

Answer 9

hollow spaces inside the bones around your nose which are connected to nasal cavity

4

Question 10

What are 4 sinuses

Answer 10

Maxillary (in cheecks)
Frontal (above eyes)
Sphenoid (behind eyes)
Ethmoid (between eyes)

Question 11

Each sinus is lined with which tissue

Answer 11

peusostratified epithelium
This skin has tiny hair-like structures called cilia, and it also has goblet cells that make mucus.

Question 12

Function of these sinuses

Answer 12

Lighten the weight if the head
Help with immunity
Humidify the inspired air
Make your voice sound better

Question 13

Pharynx

Answer 13

The pharynx is a tube-like structure that connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and esophagus. It plays an important role in both the respiratory and digestive systems

Question 14

3 parts of pharynx

Answer 14

nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx

Question 15

What does pharynx consist of

Answer 15

mucous membrane, submucousal connective tissue, glands, lymphoid tissue, muscle and an outermost advential coating

Question 16

Larynx

Answer 16

portion of respiratory tract between pharynx and trachea.
Contains the organs for production of speech .
Inlcudes epiglottis and vocal cords.
Made up of 9 cartilage

Question 17

What do trachea and bronchi have in their wall.
What do bronchioles have in their wall

Answer 17

Cartiliage

Bronchioles - smooth mscle cells

Question 18

Layers of Trachea

Answer 18

The mucosa (inner layer)- is lined with pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated epithelium. Cilia helps move mucus and trapped particles out of lungs.
Also has lamina propria (layer of connective tissue) and goblet cells (produce mucus)

Submucosa - filled with seromucus glands which produce mucus

Cartilaginous layer - consisits of hyaline cartilage- provides structure and support

Adventia - outermost layer of respiratory tract

Question 19

Gas exchange region of the lungs compromises of

Answer 19

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs and alveoli

Question 20

Walls of alveoli are made up of which 3 types of components

Answer 20

Pneumonocytes
Capillaries
Connective tissue

Question 21

What are type 1 pneumonocytes

Answer 21

These are thin, squamous (flat) cells. Surround endothelial cells of capillaries to form the air-blood barrier. This barrier is where oxygen from the air moves into the blood, and carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the air to be exhaled

Question 22

Type 2 pneumonocytes

Answer 22

Larger, cuboidal cells.
Their job is to produce and secrete surfactant. Surfactant is a substance that reduces surface tension inside the alveoli, which helps prevent the alveoli from collapsing. Without surfactant, it would be harder for the lungs to expand and breathe properly.

Question 23

What is the name of 2 branches of trachea

Answer 23

The two branches of the trachea are called the primary bronchi (or main bronchi).

Right primary bronchus: This bronchus branches off to the right lung.

Left primary bronchus: This bronchus branches off to the left lung.

Question 24

Which 2 systems work in cooperation when it comes to gas exchange

Answer 24

Circulatory and respiratory

Question 25

Some defence mechanisms

Answer 25

Sneezing - elimination of particles from nise Nasocrimal reflex- increased tear production to wash away irritants Mucociliarity escalator - defense mechanism which helps keep airways clean. The mucus in the airways traps particles, pathogens, and debris, and the cilia move the mucus upwards (toward the throat) where it can be swallowed or coughed out. Every day, the respiratory system produces about 200 grams or 2 liters of mucus to help clean the airways.

Question 26

More defense mechanisms

Answer 26

IgA found in mucosal surfaces where it plays a role in protecting against viruses like polio. It binds to and neutralises antigens. When bacteria penetrates the mucousal layer, they encounter lactoferrin. inhibits bacterial growth by binding to iron, which is an essential nutrient for bacteria to grow and reproduce. Lysozyme - enzyme found in mucus, which attacks the cell wall of gram positive bacteria Oligosaccharides - small sugar molecules found in mucus, which bind to bacteria- preventing them from adhering to mucousal surfaces Phagocytes - Release ROS which kills- pathogens The MALT system helps coordinate immune responses at the mucosal surfaces, keeping the respiratory system protected.

Question 27

Classification of lung disease

Answer 27

Congenital disorders COPD Acute respiratory pulmonary diseases Infection : TB, Pneumonia Fibrotic lung disease : Pneumoconosis - inhaling dust particles Interstitial pneumonia - causes inflammation in spaces between alveoli Tumours : malignant and non-malignant growth

Question 27

What is CF and which 3 organ systems does it affect

Answer 27

Inherited recessive disease Affects the repiratory, reproductive and digestive system

Question 28

what causes CF?

Answer 28

Mutation in CFTR gene The CFTR gene makes a protein called CTFR (Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator). This protein is a chloride channel which helps control movement of salt and water in and out of linings in lungs, intestines and other organs

Question 29

What goes wrong in CF?

Answer 29

In CF, the CFTR protein is faulty or missing. This causes: This protein normally helps move chloride out of sweat glands. In CF, chloride builds up in the sweat, making it much saltier than normal.

Question 30

How does CF affect lungs

Answer 30

In the lungs: The thick mucus clogs the airways. It traps bacteria instead of washing them out. This leads to chronic lung infections, inflammation, and damage over time.

Question 31

How does it affect digestive system

Answer 31

Mucus blocks the ducts of the pancreas, stopping digestive enzymes from reaching the intestines. This causes poor digestion and nutrient absorption, leading to weight loss and malnutrition.

Question 32

How does CF affect reproductive system?

Answer 32

Mucus blocks or damages reproductive ducts, which can lead to infertility, especially in males.

Question 33

Why are infections common in CF?

Answer 33

Normally, the body produces a substance called hypothiocyanite (an antimicrobial compound) to help kill bacteria in mucus. In CF, production of hypothiocyanite is reduced, so the defense against bacteria is weaker. This, combined with thick mucus that traps bacteria, leads to chronic infections.

Question 34

Symptoms of CF

Answer 34

recurring chest infections wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath difficulty putting on weight and growing jaundice diarrhoea, constipating or large smelly poo, bowel obstruction in newborn babies development of other related conditions such as diabetes, osteoporosis and infertility in males

Question 35

How is CF diagnosed

Answer 35

Prenatal screening newborn screening - heel prick test sweat test - gold standard Nasal potential difference

Question 36

If the chloride levels are 60 or greater

Answer 36

Cystic fibrosis

Question 37

CL2 levels 30-59

Answer 37

unclear diagnosis, further testing needed

Question 38

Less than 30

Answer 38

Cystic fibrosis unlikely

Question 39

Treatments of CF

Answer 39

No cure yet Airway clearance techniques: help loosen lung mucus, so it can be cleared, thus reduces infections and improve breathing. * Medicines o Antibiotics: treat lung infections. o Anti-inflammatory medicines, such as ibuprofen or corticosteroids, reduce inflammation. o Bronchodilators relax and open airways o CFTR modulators: improve CFTR function * Breathing support * Surgery o Lung transplant o Liver transplant