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Neurology Flashcards

(100 cards)

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1
Q

What is the brain surrounded by?

A

thick bone skull which provides protection

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2
Q

Which fluid is secreted into subarachnoid space (space between meninges) ?

A

Cerebral spinal fluid
(CSF) provides cushion

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3
Q

What are meninges and how many are there

A

These are Membranes surrounding the brain
3
These provide support

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4
Q

What are 3 different meninges and what is their function

A

1- Dura mater
2- Arachnoid - middle membrane
3- Pia mater - inside layer

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5
Q

Function of dura matter

A

Outer membrane which adheres to the inside of the skull

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6
Q

Function of pia matter

A

Inner membrane which adheres to the brain

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7
Q

Define Intracranial pressure

A

ICP is the pressure exerted by
Brain
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Blood (flowing through brain blood vessels)
This happens when brain swelling occurs

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8
Q

Causes of ICP

A

Tumour, high BP, stroke, brain infection

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9
Q

Symptoms of ICP

A

headaches
nausea
vomiting

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10
Q

What causes brain herniation

A

1- As pressure builds up, the brain is initially able to squeeze some CSF or blood out of the skull
2- Eventually these mechanisms fail and intracranial pressure begins to rise
3- Parts of the brain (physically pushed out) herniate and as pressure increases, blood flow to the brain stops, leading to death

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11
Q

Treatment for brain herniation

A

~ Cathether- drains CSF from the skull, leading to lower pressure
~ Craniotomy - skull is taken out to give the swollen brain space to expand and lower pressure
~ Trepanning - creating holes in the skull to release the pressure

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11
Q

Define brain herniation

A

Occurs when pressure inside skulls increases, which forces brain tissue to shift into spaces where it doesn’t normally go

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11
Q

Heamorrhaging

A

Small veins which connect meninges are torn, usually during an accident and blood can leak into this area
e.g. subdural haematome

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12
Q

Meningitis

A

Inflammation of meninges caused by microorganisms like virus, bacteria and fungi

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13
Q

Cancer of meninges

A

meningiomas arising from the meninges or from tumours formed elsewhere in the body which metastasize to the meninges

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14
Q

What’s the function of CSF?

A

provides physical support for the brain
Carries away toxic metabolic byproducts

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15
Q

Which sugar is important for CSF composition and how is it transported

A

Glucose
It is transported into CSF from blood via facilitated diffusion
Normally, CSF glucose levels are about 2/3 of blood glucose levels.

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16
Q

What happens when CSF flow is blocked?

A

CSF normally flows through brain ventricles and then down the spinal cord
If something is blocking this flow e.g. tumour, swelling, CSF builds inside the brain, which causes obstructive hydrocephaus (ventricles enlarge, pressure rises and brain can get damaged quicly) and this can develop quite rapidly.

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17
Q

How is CSF sampled for infections, diseases?

A

by lumbar puncture
The needle is inserted into the lower back
needle enters subarachnoid space where CSF flows

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18
Q

What’s the difference between systemic and cerebral arteries?

A

Celerabral arteries are thinner

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19
Q

Define autoregulation

A

it is the brain’s ability to automatically adjust to the size of its blood vessels to control blood flow.
If the brain needs more O2 or needs to lose CO2, vessels dilate
If the brain has enough O2, vessels constrict

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20
Q

What is blood brain barrier?

A

Separation of circulating blood from the brain’s extracellular fluid

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21
Q

Why is BBB important

A

Protects the brain from many bacterial infections like menengitis (however if bacteria gets in, it is hard to treat as antibiotics cant cross BBB)
Blocks diffusion of microscopic objects and large or hydrophilic molecules into CSF, while allowing the diffusion of small molecules like oxgyen and glucose

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22
Q

What is the largest divison of the brain and its function

A

cerebrum
Body’s ultimate contril and information processing centre

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23
What is outer layer of cerebrum called and what is it made up of
cerebral cortex made up of gray matter
24
Define gray matter
composed of neurons
25
White matter
composed of glial and myelinated axons which transmit signals from one region of cerebrum to another and between cerebrum and lower brain centres
26
Cerebreum is divided into how many hemospheres
2 Right and Left
27
Which side of the body does right hemisphere control
Left
28
Corpus callosum
Large bundles of neural fibres connecting two hemispheres
29
What is the left side of the brain responsible for
analytical thougts, language, logic
30
What is the right side of the brain responsible for
Creativity, arts and music, holistic thoughts, intuition
31
How many lobes of cerebral hemispheres are there and which ones
4 frontal pariental occipital temportal
32
Function of frontal lobe
Plays a role in: emotions memory formation decision making personality
33
Function of parietal lobe
Spatial awareness and perception: ~ Understanding where your body is in space ~ Helping you move and coordinate based on your environment Processing Sensory Information: ~Touch (pain, pressure, temperature) ~ Proprioception (knowing where your body parts are without looking)
34
Occipital lobe
Visual processing. It receives and interprets visual information from the eyes, enabling us to see, recognize objects, and understand depth, distance, and color.
35
Temporal lobe
Auditory processing
36
Function of broca's area
Language production. located in the cortex of dominant frontal lobe
37
Function of wernickes area
Language comprehension. Found where parietal and temporal lobe meet
38
Function of cerebellum
The cerebellum is a part of the brain located underneath the cerebrum, at the back of your head, just above the brainstem. Functions include: balance co-ordination voluntary movement control
39
Function of brain stem
regulation of: blood pressure, breathing, digesting and swalloing, alertness and consciousness, urination
40
Define lobotomy
It was a brain surgery used in the past to treat mental health disorders. It involves cutting parts of the brain especially frontal lobes, helping calm the patients down and control difficult behavior.
41
Define rontotemporal dementia
diseases which cause damage to the frontal and temporal lobes Patients experience: Difficulty in processing sounds Difficulty understanding languages Alterations of personality and behaviour Impaired comprehension ability
42
Somatosensory cortex?
The somatosensory cortex is a specific part of the parietal lobe that processes sensations like touch, pain, and temperature.
43
What acn occipital lobe tumours result in?
partial or total vision loss is one or both eyes hallucinations In some cases, seizures
44
Is function of the brain localised?
Yes concept that different areas of the brain are responsible for different, specific functions
45
What do brain stem disorders cause E.g. central hypoventilation syndrome
Main symptom is respiratory arrest during sleep, causing death unless they receive ventilation during sleep Can be congential or acquired (sevre neurological trauma to this region)
46
What is acute cerebellar ataxia?
sudden inability to coordinate muscle movement due to injury or disease to cerebellum
47
Name few elements of lyimbic system involve
Thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, aamygdala, hippocampus, brain stem, cerebellum
48
Function of hippocampus
important in transfer of information from short-term to long- term memory and spatial navigation. taxi-drivers have large hippocampi
49
What are 2 hippocampi disorders
Alzheimer's disease - hippocampus is the first regions of the brain to suffer, leading to memory problems Hipocampal damage - may experience anterograde amnesia, the inability to form or retain new memories
50
Function of amygdala
almon-shape structure which lies in the temporal lobe and ins linked to emotion and fear. Removing this part, makes person fearless
51
Function of thalamus
The thalamus acts as a relay station for almost all sensory information coming from the body (except smell). It receives input from sensory organs (like eyes, ears, and skin) and sends it to the appropriate sensory cortex for processing. Critical for regulation of consciousness, sleep and alertness
52
Fatal familial insomia
Disease which affects thalamus. Inherited disease in which abnormal proteins (prions) are inherited. Symptom is severe insomia. Ovetime this can lead to cognitive and motor dysfunction and hallucinations.
53
Function of hypothalamus
Located below thamalus Regulates hunger and satiety, drinking and body temperature Helps govern endocrine system via pituitary gland. The hypothalamus secretes hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. This includes hormones like: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) – stimulates the pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which affects the thyroid gland.
54
Pituitary tumour and its causes
A pituitary tumor is an abnormal growth in the pituitary gland Pituitary tumor symptoms may be caused by a tumor putting pressure on the brain or on other parts of the body nearby. Symptoms also can be caused by a hormone imbalance. Hormone levels can rise when a pituitary tumor makes too much of one or more hormones. Or a large tumor that disrupts the way the pituitary gland works may cause hormone levels to fall
55
What does MRI show
organs, bones, muscles and blood vessels
56
What are some thecniques used to study brai n
MRI PET fMRI
57
How does MRI work
Creates detailed anatomical images of the inside of the body using magnetic fields and radio waves uses a property of nuclear magnetic reasonance
58
How does PET scans work and what do they show
Uses radioactive substances shows how the organs are working rather than how they look can be used to detect early signs of cancer, heart disease and brain conditions
59
What is fMRI?
Brain scanning technqies which helps us understand how brain works - instead of just showing the structure. It tracks brain activity in real time
60
How does fMRI work
- when a specific part of the brain becomes active, neurorons consume more oxygen -the brain increases blood flow to that area to meet that demand - fmri detects this change by using blood oxygen level dependent signal (change in magnetisation between oxygen rich and oxygen poor blood)
61
What can fMRI be used for
to see which parts of the brain are active/ handling critical functions
62
Which part of the brain is responsible for facial recognition and where is it located
Fusiform Face area located in temporal lobe Although both sides of the brain are active in response to faces, right side tends to be more active
63
The activity in fusiform face area is tend to be higher in?
Females
64
Name 2 disorders of myelin
demyelinating disorders- multiple sclerosis dysmylinating disorders- leukodystrophies
65
What is myelin
insulating layer made up of protein and fatty substances, which forms around the brain and spinal cord Function- allows elctrical impulses to be trasmitted quickly
66
Multiple sclerosis
Autoimmune disease in which myelin sheaths are damaged leading to issues with movements, vision and cognition
67
2 types of onset of Multiple sclerosis
1- Relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) - you get symptoms which suddenly get worse then you get better (remission)- sometimes fully or sometimes partially 2-Secondary progressive MS (SPMS) Symptoms get worse over time even if there are no replaases
68
What are neuroddegenrative disorders
diseases which directly target neurons leading to their death
69
Neuronal degenerations can be caused by either primary or secondary degenerations. Name them
Primary can be global e.g. affecting wide areas of the brain (Alzeihmers) or they can be specific e.g. affecting selective parts of neurons (Parkinsons) Secondary are caused by toxins, metabolic probles, infection, alcohol and B12 defiecincy
70
What regions do denegration diseases affect
cortex (dementia) basal ganglia and brain stem (Parkisons)
71
Define dementia
group of diseases that damage the brain, causing progressive decline in cognitive functions like memory, thinking, and reasoning
72
Primary vs secondary dementia
In primary dementia, dementia is the disease itself Secondary dementiai is when other conditions cause it like infections, alcohol, toxins, vitamin
73
5 types of dementia
Alzeihmers disease (most common) vascular dementia frontotemporal dementia lewy body dementia other dementias
74
Early alzheimer's starts in which region and what is the symptom
Hippocampus shrinkage if brain symptoms may occur after 10-20 yrs Memory loss
75
Mild to moderate alzehimer affects which regiosn and the symptoms
involves cerebral cortex Mild- memory loss, confusion, anxiety Moderate- increased memory loss, difficulty with language and thoughts, agitation
76
Severe Alzeimhers diases symptoms
extreme shrinkage of brain dependent on other people for care Symptoms - seizures, weight loss, loss of bladder Death usually occurs from pneumonia
77
What are 2 pathological hallmarks of Alzeihmers
- Amyloid plaque - Neurofibrillary tangles
78
What is amyloid plaque (extracellular)
Amyloid plaques are aggregates of misfolded proteins that form in the spaces between nerve cells. The main component of these plaques is the amyloid β peptides. They interfere with communication between brain cells and may trigger inflammation and immune responses that kill neurons.
79
Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles
Twisted fibers made of tau protein, found inside neurons. Why are they harmful? In healthy brains, tau helps transport nutrients inside cells. In Alzheimer’s, tau becomes abnormal and forms tangles that block this transport system, eventually causing cell death.
80
Which technique can be used to study pathological features of AD
PET scans- in living people post-mortem- in dead people
81
Vascular dementia
second most common type of dementia after alzeihmers. Caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, which leads to atrophy. It can be due to stroke, hypertension, narrowing of blood vessels in brain
82
Frontotempotal dementia
Causes atrophy of frontal and temporal lobe Personality changes followed by memory loss Affects personality, behaviour and speech
83
Neuropathology of Frontotemporal dementia
Swollen neurons with round intracellular inclusion bodies found in cytoplasm These bodies are made up of tau protein fibrils, ubiquitin and tubulin
84
Lewy body dementia
Causes problems with thinking, behaviour, movement
85
Neuropathaology of Lewy body
presence of lewy bodies which are made up of misfolded protein called a-synuclein fouund in brainstem, libic system and cerebral cortex
86
Parkinson's disease symptoms
Chronic degenerative disorder of CNS/ Symptoms : tremor, s slowness of movement, difficulty with walking
87
What is parkinsons's disease caused by
loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain in substantia nigra
88
What is substantia niagra responsible for
brain region responsible for the production of dopamine and this neurochemicals affect many systems of the central nervous system ranging from movement control, emotional limbic system and cognitive executive functions
89
Neuropathlogy of parkninsons
These neurons die due to the formation of Lewy bodies– aggregates of α-Synuclein and other proteins, as seen in LBD…
90
What drug is prescribed for parkinsons disease and how does it work
Levodopa It crosses BBB and acts as a precursor that is converted to dophamine
91
Huntington's disease
condition which damages nerve cells in the brain causing them to stop working properly. It's passed on (inherited) from a person's parents.
92
Which parts of brain are affected in hungtintons
Primary site- striatal part Overtime affects basal ganglia, substantia nigra, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus. Affects movement, judgement and cognition No cure
93
neuropathology of HD
Increased repeats of CAG > 36 misfold proteins accumulate inside the brain and intefere with normal cell functions
94
what's gyri (ridge)
elevated part around the brain
95
what's sulci (groove)
shallow grooves between gyri
96
whats fissures
deep grooves diving large lobes of the brain
97
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