Carbon Cycle Flashcards

Question

What is the biological pump?

Answer 1

The biological (organic) pump is driven by ocean phytoplankton absorbing CO2 via photosynthesis (carbon fixation) These organisms form the bottom of the marine food web, and live in the ocean’s surface layer Phytoplankton are consumed by other organisms and carbon is transferred along food chains Organic carbon may eventually be transferred to the deep ocean when dead organisms sink towards the ocean floor

Answer 2

The physical (inorganic) pump involves the movement of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean by a process called diffusion CO2 dissolved in the surface of the ocean can be transferred to the deep ocean in areas where cold dense surface waters sink This downwelling carries carbon molecules to great depths where they may remain for centuries CO2 diffusion determines the acidity of the oceans

Answer 3

Formation of sediment from dead organisms - sedimentation sequesters

Answer 4

Ocean currents circulate C – it takes 1000 years for a cubic metre of water to travel around the system Warm surface waters are depleted of nutrients and CO2 but are enriched as they sink towards the bottom layers of the ocean through the circulation of currents The foundation of the Earth’s food chain depends on the cool, nutrient-rich waters that support algae and seaweed growth. C flows from the carbonate pump cycle in surface waters to the deep ocean The balance of C uptake (92 PgC) and C loss (90PgC) from the ocean is dependent on organic and inorganic processes acting in both surface water and deep ocean. Increased ocean acidification, due to Climate Change, means that oceans have less capacity to sequester C than previously – therefore more CO2 in the atmosphere

Answer 5

Terrestrial sequestration is the process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) is captured and stored on land The fastest part of the C Cycle – seconds, minutes and years Primary producers (plants) take C out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis and release it back via respiration When consumers eat plants, C from the plant becomes part of fats and proteins Micro-organisms and detritus feeders such as beetles feed on waste material from animals – C is transferred to them Decomposers then take up C from dead plants and animals C storage is mainly in plants and soils, with smaller amounts in animals and micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) The largest store is in trees, which can live hundreds and even thousands of years Carbon fluxes vary diurnally – during the day positive from atmosphere to the ecosystem and negative at night Carbon fluxes vary seasonally – in N hemisphere winter atmospheric CO2 rises, but falls again during the spring

Answer 6

Soils store 20-30% of global C – although location is important when considering whether it is a sink or a source of C There are 2 sources of C in soils. Arid and semi-arid soils contain inorganic C (very little plant life) The most important store is from organic sources through plant photosynthesis and decomposition. C can be stored as dead organic matter in soils for years, decades or centuries in colder climates and wetlands Humus is the dark layer in a soil where decomposition is taking place. Humus soils are 60% C and are important for sequestration

Answer 7

Climate – rapid decomposition occurs at higher temperatures or under waterlogged conditions. Places with higher rainfall have increased potential C storage Soil type – clay soils have higher C content than sandy soils Management and use of soils – soils lose C through cultivation and disturbance – a huge factor on intensively farmed grasslands (US/Russia)

Answer 8

Green house effect, fossil fuel combustion

Answer 9

Net primary producer - amounts of energy or biomass produced by plants through photosynthesis

Answer 10

Rainforests, estuaries and corals = high rates of sunlight

Answer 11

human activity speeds up rates of photosynthesis, however plant growth is limited by nutrient and water availability needed in order to utilise CO2

Answer 12

depends on the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil, this depends on its inputs and outputs

Answer 13

if plant residue is added to the soil at a faster rate than soil organisms covert it to CO2, carbon will gradually be removed from the atmosphere and sequestered in the soil

Answer 14

warm, humid, moist condition

Answer 15

slow decomposition rates

Answer 16

increase co2, enhance greenhouse effect, increase global warming

Answer 17

positive feedback accelerates temperature rise which is bad for the environment

Answer 18

crops and other plants grow better in the presence of higher carbon dioxide levels and seem to be more drought-tolerant

Answer 19

speeds the processes up, enhances evapotranspiration, precipitation, and intense precipitation

Answer 20

Is the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price

Answer 21

Long-term security mainly deals with timely investments to supply energy in line with economic developments and environmental needs

Answer 22

Short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system to react promptly to sudden changes in the balance between energy demand and energy supply

Answer 23

A measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy and is calculated as units of energy used per unit of GDP High intensity = high price Energy intensity decreases with economic development (service sector economies use less energy than manufacturing economies)

Answer 24

Primary energy is the energy found in nature that has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process. It encompasses energy contained in raw fuels and other forms of energy, including waste, received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable.

Answer 25

Secondary energy: When we convert primary energy into a transportable form we speak of secondary energy. For example, when we burn coal in a power plant to produce electricity, electricity is a form of secondary energy. Secondary energy includes liquid fuels (such as petrol and diesel – which are refined oil), electricity, and heat.

Answer 26

Biomass uses waste from plants or animals that can be converted to energy. Examples of biomass are plant matter, food waste and human and animal waste. Biomass can be gassy and smelly

Answer 27

Physical availability - having access within country is cheaper than imports. Accessibility is also important - surface coal mining is much easier and cheaper than deep coal mining Technology - particularly important in coal/gas/oil exploration, although uses a lot of energy Cost - includes physical exploitation of resources (e.g oil/gas); processing (converting primary energy to secondary) and delivery to the consumer Economic development– developed countries have relatively high energy consumption (see previous graph) Climate– places with temperature extremes (e.g. Canada/Saudi Arabia) need more energy to provide a more comfortable living environment Environmental priorities– countries with ‘greener’ energy policies will prioritise renewable energy use. The population will be more aware of the environmental impact and consumption may also fall

Answer 28

Gas = 26.6% Wind = 34.8% Nuclear = 11.1% Biomass = 6.6% Coal = 0.9% Solar = 2.1% Imports = 13.9% Hydro = 2.9% Storage = 1%

Answer 29

The fast carbon cycle moves carbon through life forms, while the slow carbon cycle moves carbon through rocks, soil, oceans, and the atmosphere. The fast cycle is faster, and it's measured in a lifespan. The slow cycle is slower, and it can take millions of years.

Answer 30

Forests functions and threats: - Estimated 1.6 billion people depend on forests - More than 90% of these are in developing countries Forests are essential for human well-being through their services as well as being the source of 80% of global biodiveristy - 1.1% of the global economy income - 13.2 million ‘formal’ and 41 million ‘informal’ jobs - Improve food and nutrition security - Source of livestock fodder in arid and semi-arid areas - Fuelwood source for one in three people globally for cooking and boiling drinking water - A genetic pool: a source for improving plant strains and medicine Regulation of Earth Systems: - Earth’s ‘green lungs’ regulating climate, floods, disease - Water purification Cultural Value: - Aesthetic - Spiritual - Educational - Recreational Supporting functions: - Nutrient cycling - Soil formation - Primary production Provision of goods: - Food - Freshwater - Wood and fibre - Fuel

Answer 31

Measures the correlation between environmental degradation and economic growth (GDP per capita) 1. Pre industrial economies = environment worsens 2. Industrial economies = turning point 3. Post-industrial economies = environment improves

Answer 32

Countries become wealthier and move towards service - sector economies Education about the importance of protecting the environment increases - awareness increases participation Aid given to poorer countries can reduce environmental exploitation Political systems can change in a country and environmental laws will be enforced more strictly - TNC’s may also be forced to comply with environmental regulations too

Answer 33

Uk = post industrial society and according to the model the environment should be improving China = just before the ‘tipping point’ as they have a mixture of an industrial economy and national parks

Answer 34

- Water-related risks (landslides, local floods and droughts) - An ongoing loss of biodiversity - Loss of direct reliance by many indigenous people - Some cultures and religions see forests as sacred - Leisure and tourism

Answer 35

Where carbon is held

Answer 36

adding carbon to the atmosphere

Answer 37

removing carbon from the atmosphere

Answer 38

Rainwater reacts with CO2 to form carbonic acid, which dissolves surface minerals into ions. Calcium ions are carried by rivers to the ocean, where they combine with bicarbonate to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which precipitates as calcite. Over time, this calcite becomes limestone through deposition and burial. Eventually, the ocean floor is subducted, and some carbon is released as CO2 from magma back into the atmosphere.

Answer 39

Inorganic carbon is released through weathering, such as the dissolution of alkaline rocks like chalk by carbonic acid in water. This carbon moves through the water cycle and enters the oceans, where marine organisms use it to build shells. When these organisms die, their remains are deposited on the sea floor. Rising CO2 levels are accelerating this process.

Answer 40

Sedimentation is the process where particles, like sand, mud, or the remains of organisms, settle and build up at the bottom of a body of water, forming layers over time.

Answer 41

Lithification is the process by which sediments are compacted and cemented together over time to form solid rock. It happens when layers of sediment build up, and pressure from above squeezes the particles together while minerals in the water act as glue, binding them into rock (limestone).

Answer 42

A carbon sink is any reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases.

Answer 43

A carbon store e.g. lithosphere maintains a constant amount of carbon

Answer 44

The oceans are the Earth’s largest C sink (50x greater than in the atmosphere.)

Answer 45

In undersea algae, plants and coral, with the remainder in dissolved form

Answer 46

Tropical rainforests, savannah and grasslands which account for half of global net primary producers

Answer 47

C cycling and formation is most active in topsoil

Answer 48

Over 61% of C is stored deeper than 30cm

Answer 49

Matter produced during wildfires is resistant to microbial decomposition and can remain in soils for long periods

Answer 50

Renewable energy comes from naturally replenished sources like solar, wind, and hydro, and is sustainable over time.

Answer 51

Recyclable energy refers to the reuse or recovery of energy, often from waste or industrial byproducts.

Answer 52

Human induced

Answer 53

Positive = bad Negative = good

Answer 54

Top sea layer/surface

Answer 55

They cannot afford to not purchase from Russia die to dependence/reliance

Answer 56

Gas, Coal, Oil

Answer 57

The main difference is that renewable energy is naturally replenishing, while recyclable energy focuses on reusing or recovering energy that would otherwise be wasted.

Answer 58

Demographic change - population increase Economic change - increased globalisation and movement of goods, rapid industrialisation of NIC's, new resource finds, less desire for TNC's to 'go green' due to the recent economic downturn Other factors - cultural and attitudinal factors, changing lifestyles as countries develop, globalisation of consumerism

Answer 59

The sources equal the sinks

Answer 60

C02 levels in the atmosphere and keeps global temperatures steady However, when huge amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere in a short period of time, the whole cycle can become unbalanced

Answer 61

Geological carbon cycle

Answer 62

Bio-geochemical carbon cycle

Answer 63

Weathering of rocks = Mechanical, chemical and biological weathering results in the breakdown of rocks Decomposition = Plant and animal particles from decomposition after death store carbon Transportation = Rivers can carry particles to the ocean, where they will be deposited Sedimentation = Over time, sediments build up, burying older sediments below e.g. shale and limestone Metamorphosis = Pressure builds over time in the layers of sediment which eventually leads to deeper sediment changing to rock e.g. limestone becomes marble, shale becomes slate

Answer 64

Sequestering is the movement of carbon into carbon stores which can lower the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Answer 65

The natural greenhouse effect is influenced by the concentration of atmospheric carbon (carbon dioxide and methane) The natural greenhouse effect is essential in maintaining the temperature of the Earth as a result supporting life on the planet. The Earth’s climate is driven by incoming shortwave solar radiation Around 31% is reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land surface The remaining 69% is absorbed with half being absorbed at the surface (e.g., oceans) and the other half is re-radiated into space as long-wave radiation However, much of this long-wave radiation is deflected back to the Earth’s surface by clouds and greenhouse gases This ‘trapping’ of long-wave radiation creates the natural greenhouse effect allowing life to be supported on Earth If the amount of carbon dioxide and methane increases then more long-wave radiation will be trapped causing global temperatures to rise

Answer 66

Soil health relies on the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil which is dependent on: The inputs - plant and animal residues and nutrients The outputs - decomposition, erosion and use in plant and animal productivity

Answer 67

Carbon, within soil organic matter, helps provide soil with its water retention capacity, its structure and fertility Soil erosion is a major threat to carbon storage and soil health as organic carbon is mainly found in the surface soil layer

Answer 68

Cool, moist regions (e.g., UK) could provide habitats for more species

Answer 69

Reliable and uninterrupted Affordable and competitively priced Accessible and available Dependent on domestic rather than imported

Answer 70

Energy intensity is a measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy

Answer 71

The term energy mix is used to describe the combination of different energy sources that are used to meet a country’s total energy demand

Answer 72

Developing countries usually use natural resources such as firewood for cooking Emerging countries will see a rise of oil use as transport and car ownership increases As countries develop they tend to start using more gas and nuclear power as technology advances

Answer 73

Physical availability Cost Technology Public perception Level of economic development Climate Environmental priorities

Answer 74

TNCs = The majority of these companies are involved in a variety of operations including exploring, extracting, transporting, refining and producing petrochemicals Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) = OPEC currently has 13 member countries owning around two-thirds of the world’s oil reserves between them As a result, OPEC is able to control the amount of gas and oil in the global market along with their prices OPEC have been accused of forcing up the price of oil and gas by withholding/slowing production Energy companies = Most companies are involved in the distribution of both primary energy (e.g., gas) and secondary energy (electricity) which means they have a strong influence over consumer prices and tariffs Consumers = The most important consumers are in transport, industry and domestic sectors Consumers tend to have little impact on energy prices Governments = Governments can play various different roles, for example, they look after energy security and can have an impact on how energy is sourced

Answer 75

In the twentieth century, oil took over from coal as the most used fossil fuel Today, oil is now being challenged by gas as the number one fossil fuel

Answer 76

Hydroelectricity

Answer 77

Oil and Gas and has 1/4 of the worlds known oil reserves

Answer 78

Coal Whilst the consumption of coal is decreasing in comparison to oil and gas, production is increasing China and the USA remain the two largest consumers of coal and are also the largest producers of coal There is a small mismatch as the main producers of coal are usually the main consumers e.g., China and the USA Oil There is a significant mismatch as the main suppliers of oil are members of OPEC and the consumers are in Europe Gas Gas supply is dominated by the USA and Russia and the major importers are Western European countries and Japan

Answer 79

Gas flows either directly through pipelines or in liquid form by tanker ships

Answer 80

In 2021, around 50% of Russia’s crude oil was exported to European Countries Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, many countries have pledged to stop or restrict oil and gas imports from Russia to hinder its war effort

Answer 81

Tar sands Oil shale Shale gas Deepwater oil

Answer 82

Mixture of clay, sand, water and bitumen (a heavy, viscous oil) Have to be mined and then injected with steam to reduce the viscosity of the tar so it can be pumped out Biggest deposits are in Canada and Venezuela. Tar sands produce about 40% of Canada’s oil output

Answer 83

Oil-bearing rocks that are permeable enough to allow oil to be pumped out Mined or shale is ignited so that the light oil fractions can be pumped out Little exploration has taken place

Answer 84

Natural gas that is trapped in fine-grained sedimentary rocks Fracking - pumping in water and chemicals forces out the gas The USA is the leading producer and exporter In 2015, shale gas provided 25% of the USA’s gas supply

Answer 85

Oil and gas found offshore and at considerable oceanic depths Drilling takes place from ocean rigs Huge oil deposits were discovered off the coast of Brazil in 2006 and Brazil are leading the way in this

Answer 86

These unconventional sources of fossil fuels provide countries that currently rely on imported energy with the possibility of greater energy security May provide a source of fuel whilst renewable energy sources are developed further Provides jobs and boosts the local economy

Answer 87

The exploitation of these sources will continue to threaten the carbon cycle and contribute to global warming Extraction is expensive and requires lots of complex technology, energy and water Extraction can cause environmental damage - Scars of opencast mines and possible ground subsidence - Contamination of groundwater sources and oil spills - Large quantities of waste are produced - Impacts on the local ecosystem

Answer 88

Renewable = hydro, solar, wind Recyclable = nuclear, biofuels

Answer 89

Safety - nuclear incidents such as Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima (Japan) Disposal of highly toxic radioactive waste (which has a long decay life) Technology used means that nuclear energy is only really open to the most developed countries Costs - despite operational costs being relatively low, the cost of building and decommissioning are high Security of nuclear powered stations at a time when international terrorism is a concern

Answer 90

Biofuels are derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishing products and various forms of waste There are two types of biofuels: Primary biofuels which include fuelwood, wood chips and pellets that are used unprocessed for heating, cooking or electricity Secondary biofuels are derived from the processing of crops (e.g., sugar cane, soybeans and maize) where two type of fuel are extracted (bio-alcohol and biodiesel) which are used to fuel vehicles and generate electricity

Answer 91

The implications this can have on food supply For example, a hectare of space used to grow energy crops is a hectare less for growing much needed food

Answer 92

‘capturing’ the carbon dioxide released and burying it deep underground It is expensive because of the advanced technology required No one can be sure that the carbon dioxide will stay underground and that it will not leak to the surface and enter the atmosphere

Answer 93

A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water A fuel cell will provide electricity as long as hydrogen is supplied and it will never lose its charge Fuel cells are a promising technology for use as: A source of heat and electricity for buildings A power source for electric vehicles Hydrogen fuel cells are considered to be one of the best strategies for reducing carbon emissions that has very little impact on the carbon cycle

Answer 94

Carbon capture and storage Hydrogen fuel cells

Answer 95

Afforestation and reforestation are beneficial for carbon dioxide sequestration but can be controversial in its impacts: Commercial trees such as palm oil often store less carbon, use more water and are prone to disease

Answer 96

There are two main types of grassland which cover 26% of the Earth’s land area Temperate grassland - no trees and a seasonal growth pattern linked to a large annual temperature range e.g. North America Tropical grassland or Savannah- scattered trees with a wet and dry season e.g. Africa’s serengeti

Answer 97

Rapid increase in population and changes from nomadic to sedentary farming along with the impacts of climate change and poor land management Soil and ecosystem degradation is now becoming a worldwide issue which is leading to a loss in carbon storage

Answer 98

Involves a decrease in the levels of Ph of oceans

Answer 99

Ocean acidification will be exacerbated by other factors including warming temperatures, tropical storms and pollution

Answer 100

19th century = 8.2 PH 2015 = 8.1 PH Coral reefs stop growing at 7.8 or below

Answer 101

Increases the risk of marine ecosystems reaching a critical threshold of permanent damage Globally, coral reefs are already experiencing bleaching from increasing temperatures

Answer 102

If the rate of acidification is slow enough, the organisms may be able to adapt to the changes and be more resilient

Answer 103

Equatorial Tropical Temperate Polar

Answer 104

The Amazon acts as a global and regional regulator, pumping 20 billion metric tonnes of water into the atmosphere every day Since 1990, a more extreme cycle of drought and flood has developed in Amazonia, which can be linked to shifts in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Rainfall has noticeably decreased downwind of deforested areas leading to São Paulo suffering a water crisis The Amazon rainforest which is already affected by deforestation is now being hugely impacted by droughts in 2005 and 2010

Answer 105

13 million

Answer 106

The environmental Kuznets curve suggests that communities reach a tipping point where exploitation of forests changes to more protection The changes in attitudes are usually dependent on: The wealth of a country Increasing knowledge of the role that the environment plays in our well-being Aid given to developing countries to help reduce exploitation Political systems and introduction and enforcement of environmental laws The involvement of locals The power and influence of TNCs

Answer 107

Protective legislation Community involvement in planning and developing policies

Answer 108

It's sea ice regulates evaporation and precipitation

Answer 109

Global warming is affecting ocean temperatures and currents as well as the supply of nutrients and marine food chains These changes can be categorised under the following: Bleaching Acidification Rising sea levels Loss of sea ice These changes then have an impact on distribution, abundance, breeding cycles and migration of marine plants and animals which millions of people depend on either directly or indirectly for food and income Research suggests that marine organisms may be responding faster to climate change than terrestrial organisms

Answer 110

All countries each and either sell or buy fish Fish is essential for well - being in developing countries such as Namibia and Ghana Coral reefs provide protection to coastal areas from waves = Hawaii Many towns benefit from tourism associated with coral reefs Countries that rely on exports of fish (E.g China and Thailand) will be affected by depleted stocks Millions of small - scale fishing families rely on seafood for income as well as food The FAO estimates that fishing supporting 500 million people (90% of whom are in developing countries)

Answer 111

The role of carbon sinks and their capacity to cope with changes Possible feedback mechanisms such as carbon release from peatlands and permafrost Tipping points associated with forest dieback and the reversal of thermohaline circulation

Answer 112

Future rates of global economic and population growth Planned reduction in global carbon emissions Exploitation of renewable energy sources

Answer 113

Modelled to increase until 2050 When saturation is reached, they begin to act as sources: Thawing of permafrost (tundra) in the Arctic Shift of boreal forests to the north (as tundra thaws) Tropical rainforests (currently at carbon capacity) may reduce their storage

Answer 114

Increased store in sea grasses and algae, but overall reduction as sink because: Tropical oceans have decreased carbon dioxide solubility as they are becoming warmer so absorb less Decreased efficiency and slowing down of the biological pump

Answer 115

Demographic (rising population) Economic industrial structure = energy needs technology Cultural lifestyle ideology attitudes Political governance = climate change policy

Answer 116

1. China = 35.4% 2. USA = 19% 3. India = 8.9% 4. Russia = 6.3% 5. Japan = 3.8%

Answer 117

China overtook the USA as a result of rapid urbanisation and industrialisation which indicates a positive relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions

Answer 118

Hard strategies which require technology e.g., wind farms Soft strategies which involve legislation e.g., land use zoning

Answer 119

BENEFITS Less resources used Less groundwater abstraction Changing attitudes e.g., use of more grey water RISKS Efficiency and management cannot match any increases in demand for water Promotion and enforcement of strategies by the government needed to change habits e.g., smart meters

Answer 120

BENEFITS High-tech, drought-tolerant species help resistance to climate change and increased diseases Low-tech methods and better practices lead to healthier soils which may help carbon sequestration and water storage e.g., selective irrigation, crop rotation, agroforestry More ‘indoor’ intensive farming RISKS Expensive technology, seeds and breeds unavailable to subsistence farmers in developing countries Indoor and intensive farming has high energy costs Genetic modification is still controversial but still used to create resistant strains of rich and soya Increasing food insecurity leads to countries looking for quick fixes

Answer 121

BENEFITS Land-use zoning, building restrictions in areas vulnerable to flooding Enforcing strict run-off controls and soakaways RISKS Public dislike Abandoning high-risk areas is often impossible as they are often megacities Would need strong governance, enforcement and compensation

Answer 122

BENEFITS Hard management often used e.g., river dredging, flood defences Simple changes can reduce flood risk e.g., permeable tarmac Reducing deforestation and increasing afforestation upstream to absorb water and reduce flood risk downstream RISKS Funding sources are often debated Land owners will often demand compensation Constant maintenance is required for hard management e.g., dredging

Answer 123

BENEFITS Geoengineering involves ideas and plans to intervene to counteract global warming Idea to use orbiting satellites to reflect some radiation back into space like a giant sunshade which would cool the Earth within months and be relatively cheap compared to mitigation strategies RISKS These are untried and untested Would not eliminate the worst effects of greenhouse gases such as acidification Involves messing with a very complex system which could have unintended consequences Would need to continue geoengineering for decades or centuries as there would be a rapid adjustment in the climate system if it just stopped suddenly

Answer 124

Mitigation strategies can help rebalance the carbon cycle

Answer 125

Rebalancing the carbon cycle is seen as vital in preserving the Earth’s life systems The IPCC stated in 2014 that it was possible to keep within the target of no more than a 2°C increase in average global temperatures if: - Fossil fuel use was significantly reduced - Fossil fuel use was totally eliminated by 2100

Answer 126

Mitigation strategies are considered vital to staying within the 2°C increase Mitigation strategies usually operate through five specific methods: Carbon taxation Renewable switching Energy efficiency Afforestation Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

Answer 127

The UK has led the way with many of these strategies but politics and austerity measures since 2011 has had an impact

Answer 128

Carbon price floor tax sets a minimum prices companies will have to pay to emit carbon dioxide which was unpopular and the policy was frozen in 2015 Lower road taxes for low-carbon cars were scrapped in 2015 In 2015, oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels which led to the fracking debate

Answer 129

Renewable energy (solar, wind and wave) provide intermittent electricity, while fossil fuels provide continuous power which is vital for our current demands The Climate Change Levy, designed in 2001 to encourage investment in renewable energy was cut in 2015

Answer 130

The Green Deal scheme encouraged energy-saving improvements in homes e.g., energy efficient boilers and lights, improved insulation which was scrapped in 2015 Energy suppliers must comply with the Energy Company Obligation scheme to deliver energy efficient methods to households

Answer 131

Tree planting in the UK is increasing which helps carbon sequestration Tree planting involves the Forestry Commission, charities (e.g., the National Trust and Woodland Trust), landowners and local authorities, The Big Tree Plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million new trees (mostly in urban areas)

Answer 132

Few actual geologic carbon capture and storage projects exist in the world, despite its potential Canada’s Boundary Dam is the only large-scale working scheme In 2015, the UK cancelled its investment into full-scale projects at gas and coal powered plants in Scotland and Yorkshire

Answer 133

Mitigation strategies aim to reduce the cause of climate change, primarily by limiting greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation strategies, on the other hand, focus on adjusting to the effects of climate change that are already occurring or expected to occur. Mitigation tackles the underlying problem, while adaptation deals with the consequences.