CARBON CYCLE AND ENERGY SECURITY CASE STUDIES Flashcards
Importance of Mangroves
What are Mangroves?
- A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves
occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics, mainly between latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
Why are they important?
* They sequester 1.5 metric tonnes of carbon per hectare per year.
* If just 2% of the worlds mangroves are lost, the carbon released will be 50 times the natural
sequestration rate.
* They prevent coastal erosion.
* They trap nutrient rich sediment.
* They provide protection against extreme weather and tsunamis.
* They provide fish nurseries.
o 520 million people rely on fisheries.
Threats
* They are being cleared for tourism, shrimp farms and aquaculture.
* Shrimp farms pose the greatest threat. Hundreds of thousands of acres are being cleared to create
artificial ponds.
* Climate change poses a threat to mangroves.
o Mangroves, according to IPCC forecasts, are predicted to decline in area, and structural
complexity.
Synoptic Link – Coasts
- Mangroves are an essential defence for coasts against coastal erosion, storm surges and tsunamis.
* A root cause of the massive fatalities during the 2001 Indian Ocean Tsunami were the loss of
mangroves along the Pacific coast.
* Mangroves were cleared to create tourism resorts and beaches, which increased the environmental
vulnerability of coastal settlements and put tourists in direct risk from tsunamis.
* The loss of mangroves is accelerating due to coastalisation.
Impact of climate change on coral reefs and associated tourism
Importance
* Coral reef structures buffer shorelines against waves, storms, floods - helping to prevent loss of
life, property damage and erosion.
* They provide tourism opportunities – e.g. snorkelling along the Great Barrier Reef.
* Their destruction would affect LICs and NICs – For example several million people live in US coastal
areas.
Tourism and climate change
* Sea level rise will affect coastal tourism infrastructure.
* Climate change will lead to changes in biodiversity (migration of species away, coral bleaching),
affecting eco-tourism.
* Increased stormy weather will discourage people from going on holiday.
Deforestation in Madagascar
- In 1950, there was 11.6 million Hectares of rainforest.
- In 1985, there was 3.8 million Hectares of rainforest.
Deforestation has a major impact on terrestrial carbon stores.
The rivers Sofia and Betsiboka have turned red due to soil erosion. More than 400 tonnes per hectare per
year of loose soil are being washed into these rivers.
Conversion of grassland to farmland in the US
The grasslands are being converted to meet the US Environmental Protection Agency’s renewable fuel
standard policy
* Increasing the use of ethanol in petrol.
* Boosting the economies of rural US states.
* Reducing international dependence.
* Reducing CO2 emissions.
Over 5.5 million hectares have disappeared, impacting wildlife hugely
Soil’s capacity to store carbon
- Climate: rapid decomposition occurs in higher temperatures. Places with rainfall areas potentially store more carbon than the same soil in lower rainfall places. Arid soils only store 30 tones per hectare compared with 800 tones per hectare in cold regions.
- Soil type: clay rich soils have higher carbon content than sandy soils as clay protects carbon from decomposition.
- Management and soil use: soils lose carbon through cultivation and disturbance (40 - 90 billion tones since 1850)
Tundra regions as a carbon store
- Much of the soil in tundra regions is permanently frozen and contains ancient carbon.
- Microbe activity is only active in the surface layer of the soil when it thaws.
-The rest of the time the roots and dead and decayed organic matter are frozen, locking any carbon into an icy store. - Tundra soils contain carbon that has been trapped for hundreds of thousands of years.
Peatlands as a carbon store
- Peatlands are a type of wetlands that occur in almost every country on Earth, currently covering 3% of the global land surface.
- The term ‘peatland’ refers to the peak soil and the wetland habitat growing on it’s surface.
- Many peatlands are thousands of years old and are an important store of carbon.
- Year-round waterlogged conditions slow the process of plant decomposition to such an extent that the dead plans accumulate to form pear.
- This can be several metres thick.
Factors effecting access and consumption of energy
- Technology: Deep drilling can tap into deposits of oil and gas. Many countries without this technology are unable to tap into this natural resource. E.g. Many countries in Africa do not have access to this technology so have a relatively low energy consumption, TNCs like Royal Dutch use their technology to abstract oil from Nigeria at a price due to their wide availability.
- Physical Availability: A large availability to energy can be very beneficial to the countries economy with saving on importing fees and having a trade in oil. E.g. Saudi Arabia has a high consumption of energy due to it’s large natural accessibility.
- Environmental Priorities: A government may take a more expensive route to meeting energy needs in the name of climate sustainability. E.g. During Biden’s term in the American office he committed to the Paris Agreement and gave many executive orders reversing the climate policy that Trump had administered, despite the USA’s large access to fossil fuels.
- Public Perceptions: With prefer from the electorate, a government may be pressure to seek more environmentally friendly energy alternatives. E.g. Many single-issue environmental pressure groups in the UK lobby and illegally protest against the UK’s energy consumption - Just Stop oil.
- Cost: Cost can explain the ranging energy mix across the world, with HIC’s having the largest energy consumption in comparison to LICs or NEEs. This can be due to HIC’s having the funds to import oil whilst lower income countries may have to depend upon their own resources.
Comparing Energy Mix: UK and Norway
Norway:
1970:
- 42.5% Hydropower
- <1% Renewables (wind and solar)
- 6.5% Coal
- 51% Oil
2010:
- 40% Hydropower
- <0.5% Renewables
- <1.5% Coal
- 20% Gas
- 33.5% Oil
- 5% Biomass and waste
UK:
1980:
- 34% Coal
- 19% Gas
- 38% Oil
- <1% Biomass and waste
- 2% Hydropower
- 6% Nuclear power
- <2% Renewables
2012:
- 15% Coal
- 40% Gas
- 32.5% Oil
- 1% Biomass and waste
- 1% Hydropower
- 9% Nuclear power
- 2% Renewables
OPEC
Who is OPEC? Why was it established?
- Established in 1960s to protect the interests of oil-producing countries - at the time, the Arab oil fields were controlled by TNCs who raised and lowered prices whenever they wanted.
- It sets production quotas for member countries in response to supply demands - if demand rises suddenly they increase production to prevent a rise in price. Or they can reduce production to avoid a price slump.
- It has around 78% of the world’s oil reserves.
- It produces around 45% of the worlds crude oil and 15% of natural gas.
- It has the power to significantly affect oil prices by increasing or decreasing production.
Is OPEC purposely controlling the price of oil?
Yes
- It controls such a large amount of oil its decisions have a huge bearing on on price of oil.
- OPEC nations claim to have ever greater reserves so could easily control production if they wanted.
- They have no shortage of customers - developed and developing nations have massive demand so they cab only gain from pricey oil
No
- Instability has led to speculation in the commodities futures market, pushing up prices.
- OPEC doesn’t increase production because it can’t - we have overestimated funds they have left.
- There are other reasons for the high oil prices, such as the level of demand and ‘above ground’ security risks.
Players in Oil
- State Owned TNCs: Very secure, in Russia, where Gazprom decides where TNCs can invest. Most state owned companies separated exploitation and production. Gazprom is a state owned (52% ownership) Russian TNC. Other state owned oil companies include Saudi Aramco, NIOC (Iran), Petro China, Pemex (Mexico), NNPC (Nigeria).
- TNCs (private): The need to make a profit for shareholders pushes them to risky locations. High in terms of expertise but ultimately they can only operate within host countries rules. Powerful because of their diversity and their presence in countries. Major TNCs include Exxon Mobil, BP Royal Dutch Shell - Shell and Exxon Mobil drill in the Niger Delta.
- OPEC: Very secure with peak oil more imminent, the fact the members control 66% of the world reserves and 40% of production is key. Twelve members protect interests, stabilize prices by controlling production and eliminate harmful price fluctuations, so providing an efficient to consumers. Members are: Nigeria, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Angola, Venezuela, Algeria, Qatar and Ecuador.
- Governments: Some governments exercise sound stewardship and investment strategies, e.g. Norway. Others lack competence and expertise. Governments can force TNCs to share developments. Oil discovered in non OPEC countries such a Norway, and within South America and African government creates an increase in influence. Russia has total control over foreign TNCs.
- Consumers: Somewhat secure as they have influence over preferred energy mix and decisions concerning future demand, e.g. picking green options at a higher cost, or organizing anti-nuclear protests. Essentially 7 billon as decision makers, e.g. in deciding whether to support alternatives such as nuclear. more likely to be influential in developed countries via shares in TNCs
Chokepoints - Narrow channels along widely used global sea routes
The inability of oil tankers to transit a major chokepoint can lead to substantia supply delays and higher shipping costs, resulting in higher world energy prices. Whilst most chokepoints can be circumvented by using other routes that add significantly to transit time, no practical alternatives are available in some cases. Chokepoints may also expose oil tankers to theft from pirates, terrorist attacks, political unrest, and shipping accidents.
Geopolitical tensions between countries: Iran and the Straight of Hormuz
- The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow strait between the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. It is the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean and is one of the worlds’ most strategically important chokepoints. On the North coast is Ira, and on the South coast is the United Arab Emirates and Musandam (an exclave of Oman). At its narrowest the strait is 54m wide.
- According to the US, in 2011 an average of 14 tankers per day passed out of the Persian Gulf through the strait carrying 17 million barrels of crude oil. It is said to represent 35% of the world’s seaborne oil shipments and 20% of oil traded worldwide. Historically this is an area of great conflict and poor international relations with Iran over their potential development of nuclear weapons leads to frequent threats from them to close the straits. The USA maintains a constant military presence to ensure a safe passage of oil. By the way of an alternative - the UAE has opened and is operating a new overland pipeline. It runs from the Habshan fields in Abu Dhabi to the Fujairah oil terminal effectively bypassing the strait of Hormuz.
Types of Disruption to Oil Supply
Natural Disasters - Hurricane Katrina (2005):
- Over 90% of Gulf production was temporarily halted
- Refineries in Louisiana and Mississippi were damaged
- Oil prices surged to over $70 per barrel
Exhaustion of supply/ reaching peak production - North Sea Oil Decline (2000-present)
- North sea oil fields began depleting in the early 2000s
- UK oil production fell from 2.7 million barrels per day to around 1 million from 1999 to 2020
- UK became a net oil importer after years of exporting
- UK increased vulnerability to supply share
Piracy and terrorism - Somali Piracy (2011)
- Somali pirates were using 20 seized vessels to launch attacks in the Indian ocean.
- Seamen were attacked at gun and knife point
- Somalia ships may need to take longer routes to avoid danger
Increase in price - Russia-Ukraine War Energy Crisis (2022- present day)
- Sanctions on Russia, one of the worlds largest oil exporters, disrupted global supplies
- Oil prices surged to over $120 per barrel in mid-2022
- European countries struggled with fuel shortages, forcing them to seek alternative suppliers.
Increasing demand from developing nations - China’s Oil Surge Demand (2000- present day)
- Rapid industrialization and urbanization in China led to massive increase in oil consumption.
- China’s oil demand tripled from 3 million barrels per day to 14 million from 1990 to 2023
- The country has become the world’s largest oil importer
Unconvential Resources of Oil
Tar Sands - Canada
+ Made Canada the number one foreign supplier of oil to the US
- Bird habitats around the Athabasca delta are being destroyed to clear land for oil production
Implications for carbon cycle: Carbon emissions associated with extracting tar sands could increase overtime due to it creating more emissions than surface mining
Environmental impacts: 15% more carbon dioxide emissions
Players: SUPPORT - TNCs, consumers, industry specialists. OPPOSITION - NRDC and Green peace.
USA Shale oil
+ The USA is less reliant on imported oil
- Can lead to serious environmental damage
Implications for carbon cycle: Involves pumping a mix of pressured water, sand and chemicals into the wells, creating fissures
Environmental impact: The chemicals used in fracking may contaminate the local groundwater
Players: SUPPORT - Oil companies, chevron. OPPOSITION - environmental organizations
UK Shale Oil
+ Six potential sites in Lancashire could provide 2500 jobs
- Drilling brought a series of earth tremors into the balanced district.
Implications for the carbon cycle: The extraction and combustion of the shale oil accelerating carbon dioxide emissions
Environmental impacts: Environmentalist say cacogenic chemicals may escape and contaminate groundwater around the training site
Players: SUPPORT - Government officials. OPPOSITION - government banned fracking in 2019
Deepwater Oil
+ Reached 9.3 million barrel per day
- Expensive facilities such as technology training
Implications to the carbon cycle: The extraction and burning of deep water oil leads to increased carbon dioxide emissions
Environmental impact: Oil spills cause catastrophic damage to the environment and marine life
Players: SUPPORT -Government, BP, Shell, OPEC. OPPOSITION - local communities
Alternative sources of energy and radical technologies
Nuclear:
- Result is unstable and investors are reluctant
- Chernobyl disaster
- Can create relatively cheap energy and easy to manufacture plants
Wind:
- Still more expensive than fossil fuels
- Wind is available to all countries
- Cheapest clean energy
Solar:
- More expensive than coal by 10 cents per kilowatt
- Increase in 600 large scale power plants from 2007-2008
- World’s fastest growing energy technology
- Production growing 40% a year since 2012
Biofuels:
- Lead to large scale rainforest clearance in Brazil
- 90% of new cars in Brazil can use ethanol alongside petrol
Carbon capture:
- Can’t guarantee it will stay underground
- Can account for 14% of total energy related CO2 reductions needed by 2050
Hydrogen fuel cells:
- Processes to harvest may require large amounts of energy and release large quantities of greenhouse gases
- Replacement for petrol and any waste product is water.
Electric vehicles:
- Cheap to run, no noise pollution, no carbon emissions
- More expensive to buy and how they are made is an environmental concern
