WATER CYCLE AND WATER INSECURITY CASE STUDIES Flashcards
(10 cards)
China’s Water Management: 3 Gorges Dam
Key features
* A hydroelectric dam on the Yangtze River in
China.
* In terms of the amount of electricity it
generates, it’s the world’s largest power
station.
* It cost $30 billion. However, it should only
take about 10 years to fully recover the
costs.
* The power generated by the 34 generators
is enormous. It is equivalent to burning 25
million tons of crude oil or 50 million tons of
coal.
* Over 100 towns and settlements were
submerged when the dam was built. In
addition, over 1,000 archaeological and
historic sites were also submerged and lost.
Benefits
* Power generation for the middle, eastern
and southern China. – Industry and
emerging middle class are ‘winners’
* Controls water levels – will avoid frequent
floods, which cause problems around the
Jinjiang river.
* Tourism – To see the Yangtze river where a
calm lake makes scenic spots which were
originally hard to enter are now reachable.
Drawbacks
* Residents – The dam partially or completely
inundated 2 cities, 11 counties, 140 towns,
326 townships, and 1351 villages. About
23800 hectares, more than 1.1 million
people must be resettled.
* Every year, about 265 million gallons of raw
sewage are deposited in the Yangtze River.
Sewage will collect in the reservoir, which
increases the risk for waterborne diseases.
* The dam is built near many geological fault
lines. About 360 million people live within the
watershed of the Yangtze River.
* Huge impacts environmentally – endangering 57
plant species, 25 fish species.
* Landslides may increase. One killed at least 30
people.
China’s Water Management: South-North Water Transfer
Key features
* The Chinese government is building a $62
billion South-North Water Transfer Project.
* The project would divert 44.8 billion cubic
meters of water per year from the Yangtze
River in Southern China to the Yellow River
Basin in arid Northern China.
* An estimated 330,000 people were recently
relocated for the expansion of the
Danjiangkou reservoir.
Benefits
* The project, officials say, saves China from a
water crisis that could set its development
back years.
* Will distribute water fairly to the North of
China.
* Vital for economic development and water
supply to Beijing and other areas.
Drawbacks
* Many are concerned that the project could
exacerbate water pollution problems.
Pollution from factories along the Eastern
Route may render the water unfit to drink.
* About 345,000 villagers have been displaced
by the project to date. Many farming
communities displaced.
Megadroughts In California
Impacts
* California is in the third year of one of the worst droughts in the past century.
Environmental:
* About 1000 more wildfires than usual have occurred.
* Prolonged drought threatens wildlife.
Economic:
* Last year, farmers harvested 640,000 fewer acres, but crop revenue remained strong.
* Farms have adopted more efficient water management technologies.
Social:
* Water shortages and restrictions.
* Competition over water supply for agriculture, domestic use and aquatic ecosystems – could escalate to
conflict over water use.
However, water supplies were really stocked up prior to the drought, easing the situation.
Causes of the current drought
* In normal winters, southwest winds from the ocean deliver water. Recently, for unexplained reasons, these
winds have failed California.
* Tree ring studies: Very little of the California drought can be attributed to climate change with any certainty.
* Cooler water temperatures – known as La Niñas – tend to produce drier conditions in the west. El Niño
conditions would cause above average rainfall.
Previous droughts
* Dust bowl (1930s) – Spanned 8 years in certain parts of the great plains. It was the worst American drought in
the last 300 years, causing mass migration westward.
* Great plains drought (1950s) – At its peak in 1954, it covered 62% of the country.
Drought in South America: Brazil
Usual rainfall versus 2014-2015
* Usually, moist air from the South Atlantic encounters the Andes mountain range. This forces its
southward, creating a flow of moisture around the basin.
* In 2014-2015, high pressure systems diverted moist air further North, causing heavy rains in
Bolivia and Paraguay but dry air over Brazil.
Impacts
* Water rationing for 4 million people.
* Brazil relies heavily on HEP for its power, so the drought caused power cuts.
* Increased groundwater abstraction.
o In Brazil, there are high fees to drill wells. This has led to a vast number of illegal wells.
Infact, 70% of wells are illegal. Illegal wells are shallower and polluted.
* The Arabica Coffee bean crop reduced, which drove global coffee prices up 50%.
* By 2015, main reservoirs had reached 5% of their capacity.
Impacts of drought in the Amazon
* Rainforests recycle ½ of their rainfall, so deforestation could trigger a positive feedback loop
causing further drought.
* A drying forest means reduced soil water storage and evapotranspiration. It also means that
uncontrolled wildfires are much more likely to occur.
* Prolonged drought causes forest stress, which could lead the Amazon to a tipping point ( a
sudden change from which it could never return).
* The Amazon intakes 20 billion tonnes of water vapour, which is mostly released over Brazil as
rain.
World-wide impacts
* Loss of a carbon sink.
* Wildfires.
* Changes to ENSO.
Drought in South America: The Pantanal
Value
* The Pantanal is a significant freshwater ecosystem for birds and aquatic wildlife.
* The river floodplain is vital and relies on seasonal rainfall.
* When the seasonal rainfalls come, 80% of the Pantanal is flooded. The wetlands retain
60% all year round.
Impacts of 2014/2015 drought
* The drought tested the resilience of the ecosystem.
* There was an increase of tree mortality, which reduced habitats.
* There have also been more wildfires, due to routine grass burning by cattle farmers
igniting the dry forest.
Potential for Water Conflict: River Tigris and Euphrates
Players:
* These two rivers supply Syria and Iraq, however the source is in Turkey.
* Turkey has been building hydroelectric dams.
o Reduced water flows into Iraq and Syria by approximately 80 per cent and 40 per cent
respectively.
* Syria built dams in response, which led to even less water reaching Iraq. This almost led to war in 1975.
* Low flow rates in Iraq have allowed salt water to infiltrate nearly 150km inland (saltwater
encroachment) from the Persian Gulf.
o The decline in water flows has also led to decreased agricultural yields. Iraq reported its worst
cereal harvest in a decade in 2009, indicating a potential food security problem.
Earlier this year (2018), Iraq threatened to take its case for an increase in water flows from Turkey and Syria to
the UN.
Use of water as political leverage
In 1987, Turkey and Syria came to an agreement over water sharing.
* Turkey would maintain a flow rate of 500 cubic meters a second where the Euphrates River passes into
Syria.
* Turkey asked for Syria’s cooperation on the issue of Kurdish rebels residing in Syrian territory.
* This has created a dangerous precedent, as water scarcity is set to increase, and the political leverage
wielded by Turkey will consequently increase in turn.
The future
Several droughts in Iraq in recent years has increased the likelihood of conflict in the future. The risk of regular
future water shortages could make the Iraqi people increasingly desperate.
Projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) indicate a changing climate and the
potential for a permanent decrease in rainfall. In addition, rapidly increasing populations within the region could
escalate tensions into major conflict in the future.
Drought in Australia
Australia Overview
-Australia has been facing a severe drought lasting over a decade, described as a 1-in-1,000-year event.
- It is the driest inhabited continent, with low and unreliable rainfall and high evaporation rates, exacerbating water shortages.
- Climate change is believed to be a major factor, with forecasts suggesting a 7°C temperature rise by 2070 and a 40% drop in rainfall in the east.
Impacts
- Environmental: Drying rivers, shrinking wetlands, algal blooms, loss of native fish, and increased soil salinity.
- Agricultural: Major effects on the Murray-Darling Basin (Australia’s agricultural heartland), reduced irrigation, crop failure, and livestock loss.
Economic: Losses estimated to have reduced GDP by 1% in 2006–07.
- Social: Increased farmer suicides; one every four days, showing the mental health toll.
Government & Community Responses
Water restrictions: Lawn watering, car washing, and pool refilling limited or banned.
- Recycling initiatives: Grey water used for irrigation; drinking use under trial.
- Desalination: Plants built in Perth and planned for Sydney and Victoria to convert seawater to drinking water.
- Infrastructure: Construction of major pipelines to redistribute water (e.g., North–South pipeline in Victoria).
- Exit grants: Financial support for farmers leaving the profession.
Looking Ahead
- Some rainfall in 2007 provided brief relief, but long-term solutions are still needed.
- Political debate continues over climate responsibility and Australia’s refusal to sign the Kyoto Protocol.
- Experts suggest Australia may need to adapt to a permanently drier climate.
Sustainable Water Solutions in India
Water Problems in India
Unequal water distribution:
- Most river flow happens during the short monsoon season, and there is a gap between total runoff and usable water.
- Heavy dependence on groundwater: 85% of rural water and much of the irrigation relies on it, but overuse is leading to falling water tables.
- Rapid population growth (1.6% per year) and urbanisation are increasing demand.
Causes of Water Stress
- Economic: Industrial growth, tourism (especially in places like Goa), and agriculture (notably after the Green Revolution).
- Social: Population growth, lifestyle changes, and urbanisation.
- Environmental: Climate change, glacier retreat, droughts, pollution (e.g. Ganges), and wetland destruction.
Stakeholders
- Include national/state governments, NGOs, villagers, urban dwellers, commercial companies (e.g., Coca-Cola), and global agencies like the World Bank.
- Many demand sustainable and equitable water access as a basic right.
Solutions
- Top-down (high-tech, large-scale):
Mega dams and river linking projects.
- Often controversial due to environmental impact, high cost, and community displacement.
- Bottom-up (low-tech, community-led):
Rainwater harvesting: Tanks (taankas), ponds (naadis), rooftop collection.
- Land management: Bunds, stone dams, Persian wheels.
- Education and awareness: Puppet shows and village-led initiatives encourage sustainable water use and conservation.
Rajasthan Case Study
- One of India’s driest and poorest regions, with high water stress.
- 90% of drinking water comes from overused groundwater.
- NGOs like Wells for India and projects like GLOWS focus on:
- Rainwater harvesting
- Community education
- Building ownership and responsibility through local participation
India’s water issues require both technological fixes (like dams) and attitudinal changes (through local engagement). Long-term success depends on sustainable, inclusive approaches tailored to local needs—especially in vulnerable rural areas like Rajasthan.
Water conflict: The Nile
Background
- The Nile River, the longest in the world, flows through 11 countries, including Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Uganda.
- It is a vital freshwater source, especially for Egypt and Sudan, which are heavily dependent on its flow for agriculture, drinking water, and industry.
The Conflict
- The main source of tension is the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), a massive hydropower project built by Ethiopia on the Blue Nile.
- Egypt fears that GERD will reduce water flow downstream, impacting farming and water security.
- Ethiopia argues that it has the right to develop its resources to provide electricity and boost its economy.
Key Issues
- Historic treaties (e.g., 1929 and 1959 agreements) gave Egypt and Sudan a large share of the Nile’s water—Ethiopia was excluded.
- Water use imbalance: Egypt uses ~55 billion m³ of water annually, while upstream countries like Ethiopia historically had little access.
- Climate change and population growth are increasing pressure on Nile resources.
Efforts to Resolve
- Negotiations involving the African Union, United Nations, and World Bank have been ongoing but remain unresolved.
- Ethiopia has begun filling the dam, escalating tensions.
- Egypt has threatened diplomatic and military action, but emphasizes negotiation.
Outlook
- The situation remains tense but unresolved.
- Cooperation and regional agreements are needed for sustainable and equitable water sharing.
- There is growing recognition that shared resources require shared responsibility.
Water Conflict: The Colorado River
Background
- The Colorado River flows through 7 U.S. states (like Colorado, California, and Arizona) and into Mexico, serving 40 million people.
- It supplies water for agriculture, cities, and industry, and supports vital ecosystems in the arid American Southwest.
The Conflict
- The main conflict is over how to divide the river’s limited water supply among the states and Mexico—especially as demand exceeds supply.
- The 1922 Colorado River Compact split the river’s water between:
- Upper Basin states (Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, New Mexico)
- Lower Basin states (California, Arizona, Nevada)
- But the agreement was based on overestimated river flow, creating ongoing shortages.
Key Issues
- Over-allocation: The river was divided based on 17–18 million acre-feet of annual flow, but the actual average is closer to 13–15 million.
- Drought and climate change have worsened shortages—Lake Mead and Lake Powell (key reservoirs) are at record lows.
- Agriculture vs. urban needs: Agriculture uses ~70–80% of the river’s water, creating tension with fast-growing cities like Phoenix and Las Vegas.
- Mexico receives 1.5 million acre-feet/year under a 1944 treaty, but quality and timing of water delivery remain issues.
Recent Disputes & Agreements
- California, Arizona, and Nevada have clashed over who should reduce usage during droughts.
- The Drought Contingency Plan (2019) and later emergency deals aimed to reduce usage and stabilize reservoir levels.
- Tribal nations, like the Navajo Nation, are asserting their water rights—many still lack basic access to water.
Outlook
- With water levels continuing to fall, states face hard choices and renegotiations.
- Cooperation, conservation, and new water-saving technologies are critical.
- A long-term, climate-resilient agreement is urgently needed to prevent crisis.
