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Cell Immunity By The Spec Flashcards

1
Q

What molecules enable an immune system to identify

A

Pathogens
Cells from other organisms of the same species
abnormal body cells
toxins.

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2
Q

Antigen definition

A

The effect of antigen variability on disease and disease prevention.

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3
Q

Phagocytosis definition

A

The subsequent destruction of ingested pathogens by lysozymes.

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4
Q

What to t-lymphocytes do

A

produce an immune response when they are exposed to a specific antigen

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5
Q

When do t cells bind to an antigen

A

if it is present on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell

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6
Q

What is an antigen-presenting cell

A

An antigen-presenting cell is one of the host’s cells that has been invaded by a pathogen and is displaying the antigen on its cell surface membrane

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7
Q

What do antigen-presenting cells do?

A

1) Present antigens from toxins, foreign cells and ingested pathogens
2) Help recruit other cells to produce specific immune response
3) Once the surface receptor of T cell binds to complementary antigen on antigen presenting cell becomes sensitised and divides to produce clone cells

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8
Q

Examples of antigen presenting cells

A

Macrophages and dendritic cells

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9
Q

What do T lymphocytes do

A

Those with receptors specific to an antigen divide by mitosis to increase in number

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10
Q

What do T lymphocytes differentiate into

A

Helper T cells
T killer cells

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11
Q

What do helper t cells do

A

Assist other white blood cells in the immune response
Release cytokines
Increase rate of phagocytosis

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12
Q

What do cytokines stimulate

A

-Maturation of B lymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma cells
-memory B cells
-Activation of cytotoxic T cells, that destroy virus infected cells and tumour cells

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13
Q

What do T killer cells do

A

-Patrol the body looking for antigen-presenting body cells
-Attach to foreign antigens on CSM of infected cells and secrete toxins that kill infected body cells

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14
Q

Example of T killer cells

A

Perforins
Secreted by T killer cells punch a hole in CSM of infected cells allowing toxins to enter

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15
Q

Summarise T killer and helper cells during an immune response

A

1) infected body cell with antigens displayed
2) t helper and killer cells bind to complementary antigens on antigen presenting cell
3) Helper t cells = mitosis, secrete cytokines that stimulate B cells that form plasma and memory cells
3) Killer t cells = divide by mitosis, secrete toxins that kill infected body cell

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16
Q

What are lymphocytes and the two types

A

Type of white blood cell
Smaller than phagocytes with large nucleus
T lymphocytes = t cells
B lymphocytes = b cells

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17
Q

What do immature t lymphocytes do

A

leave the bone marrow to mature in the thymus

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18
Q

What do mature t lymphocytes do

A

have specific cell surface receptors called T cell receptors which have a similar structure to antibodies and are each specific to one antigen

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19
Q

What happens when T lymphocytes encounter their specific antigen

A

Activated when bind to specific antigen presented by our cells
Antigen-presenting cell might have been invaded by a pathogen displaying the antigen on its CSM
The activated T lymphocytes divide by mitosis and undergo helper and cytotoxic t cells roles

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20
Q

What can mature B lymphocytes do

A

Code for antibodies
(Each lymphocyte can make one type of antibody)

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21
Q

Clonal selection

A

IF antigen enters B lymphocyte cells with the correct cell surface receptors they will recognise and bind to it (clonal selection)

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22
Q

What can antibodies from b lymphocytes produce

A

Part of the antibody can form glycoprotein receptors that are specific to a certian type of antigen

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23
Q

What do b lymphocytes turn into when they bind with antigens inside a cell

A

Differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells through clonal expansion (mitosis)

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24
Q

Describe a primary immune response using B lymphocytes

A

1) B lymphocyte has an antibody receptor specific to the receptor on the antigen
2) The selected B cell divides by mitosis forming plasma and memory cells
3) Plasma cells secrete antibodies that are specific with the antigen that has entered the body

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25
Uses of monoclonal antibodies
Pregnancy tests, diagnosing HIV, detecting the presence of pathogen, detecting cancer cells
26
How do you monoclonal antibodies detect wher blood clots are
1) Inject a mouse with human fibrin 2) Activates the plasma cells to produce antibodies against fibrin 3) Cells are collected from the mouse spleen 4) Plasma cells are then fused with tumour cells forming hybridomas that produce antifibrin antibodies 5) A radioactive chemical is attached to the antibodies to detect where antibodies are binding to fibrin 6) Gamma ray camera is used to detect where these antibodies have attached (shows where blood clots can be found)
27
How do you test for HIV using monoclonal antibodies
1) HIV antigen attached to test plate 2) Blood sample being tested passes on plate and bind to antigen on HIV antibodies, and wash the plate 3) A monoclonal antibody is passed over the plate, antigen of HIV will bind to monoclonal antibody if present 4) A dye is passed over the plate (chromogen) catalysing a colour change to the enzyme so you can see if the HIV is present
28
Therapeutic uses of monoclonal antibodies
1) Treatment of rabies (inject pure antibodies) 2) Prevent organ rejection from transplants 3) Autoimmune therapies (asthma) 4) Treatment of diseases by binding to cell surface receptors on B cells causing death of cells 5) Prevent blood clots
29
What are some defence mechanisms our bodies have against pathogens
1) Prevent entry of pathogens (physical and chemical, skin, tears, mucous, saliva) 2) Inflammation (swell region invaded by pathogen) 3) Recognising foreign cells (specific response, targeting pathogens)
30
What molecules identify foreign cells
Usually proteins Part of the phospholipid bilayer such as glycoproteins
31
Where are surface proteins (glycoproteins) found on
Pathogen cells Abnormal body cells Toxins Cells from other individuals from same specie (organ transplants)
32
What are antigens purpose
Allow cell to cell recognition
33
Two types of antigens
Self antigens and non self antigens Self antigens = dont produce immune response
34
What are phagocytes
White blood cells constantly produced in the bone marrow
35
What do phagocytes do
Remove dead cells and invasive microorganisms Carrying out a non-specific immune response
36
What are the two types of phagocytes
Neutrophils macrophages
37
What do neutrophils do - endocytosis
1) Chemotaxis = chemicals released by pathogens attract neutrophils to where they are located 2) Neutrophils move towards pathogens with antibodies on their surface 3) Antibodies stimulate neutrophils to attack the pathogens as neutrophils have specific receptor proteins that recognise anybody molecules and attach to them 4) When attached the CSM of the neutrophil extends around the pathogen engulfing it within the phagocyte vacuole
38
What are lyososomes
Membrane organelles that contain lysozymes
39
What do lysozymes do
Digestive enzymes Digest unwanted material present in cells
40
What is a phagosome
The phagocytic vacuole formed around a pathogen once its been engulfed by a neutrophil
41
What does a lysosome do
Fuses with the membrane of the phagosome and releases lysozymes to digest the pathogen
42
What happens to neutrophils after they kill and digest a pathogen
Die Pus is a sign of a neutrophils death
43
Stages of phagocytosis
1) Attraction (chemotaxis) 2) Recognition and attachment 3) Endocytosis 4) Bacteria with a phagocytic vacuole 5) fusion of lysosomes and phagocytic vacuole 6)Killing and digestion
44
Where are macrophages
Move into organs
45
WHat are macrophages roles
1) Initiate an immune response 2) Cut pathogens open to display antigens of pathogens on surface 3) Displayed antigens from antigen-presenting cell can be recognised by lymphocytes
46
What are antibodies
Globular glycoproteins called immunoglobulins
47
What strucutre to antibodies have
Quaternary structure with two heavy/ long polypeptide chains bonded to disulfide bonds to two light/ short polypeptide chains Each polypeptide has a constant region and variable region
48
What does the constant region in an antibody do
Determins the mechanism used to destroy the antigens
49
What does the variable region do
Antibodies are different for each antibody Antibody attached to antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex§
50
What does the end of the variable region site have
Antigen-binding site THey vary greatly for specificity for binding to antigens
51
What is an epitope
Part of the antigen which binds to the antibody
52
What is the hinge region
gives flexibility for antigen binding site to be placed at different angles when binding to antigens
53
Where are the light and heavy polypeptide chains
Heavy at bottom Light at top Y
54
How do antigen-antibody complexes form
Antibody collides with a foreign cell that possesses a non-self antigen with a complementary shape, they bind to form an antigen antibody complex
55
What is agglutination and the advantage
Antibodies have two antigen-binding sites (top of Y) Bind more than one so pathogens can clump together Phagocytes can often phagocytose many pathogens at the same time when clumped together
56
What does the binding of antigens to antibodies do
Neutralises the pathogen or acts as a marker to attract phagocytes to engulf and destroy the pathogens
57
What do B lymphocytes form
Plasma and memory cells
58
What is the difference between primary and secondary immune responses
Primary = newly encountered antigen Secondary = previously encountered
59
Describe what happens in a primary immune response
1) Only one of these B cells has an antibody receptor that is specific to the shape of the antigen that has entered the body 2) The selected B cell divides by Mitosis and turn into plasma or memory cells 3) Plasma cells secrete antibodies that specifically combine with the antigen that has entered the body SLOW PROCESS
60
Describe waht happens after the primary immune response -> the secondary immune response
4) The antigen enters the body for some time 5) Memory cells divide to form more plasma cells which secrete antibodies FAST
61
WHat happens when a T lymphocyte comes into contact with the right pathogen
T lymphocyte receptor binds to complementary antigen T lymphocyte is activated
62
What is attached onto the surphace of a b lyphocyte
Antibody
63
How are neutrophils adapted for their roles
Multilobed nucleus allows the cell to be flexible Glycogen granules store glucose which allow the cell to carry out respiration for energy for phagocytosis Lysosomes contain lysozymes for the cell to digest pathogens
64
Process of phagocytosis
Neutrophil engulfs pathogen which is then contained within a phaogosome vacuole The phagosome fuses with a lysosome inside the cell releasing lysozymes The lysozymes digest the pathogens and digested parts of the pathogen are displayed on the cell surface membrane of the neutrophil
65
WHy do antigen presentation lead to a specific immune response
1) T cells with complementary receptors bind to antigens and are activated 2) B cells with complementary antibodies bind to antigens and are activated 3) Activated T lymphocytes divide by mitosis/ clonal expanasion so more lymphocytes are produced specific to the antigen
66
Histamines are chemicals. How do they assist phagocytes
Phagocytes are large cells that are contained within blood vessels More permeable capillary walls mean that phagocytes can move into tissues directly to the site of cell damage
67
How are b lymphocytes activated
Chemicals released by T helper cells bind to complementry receptors on the cell surface Antibodies on the cell surface of the b cell bind to complementary antigens on the surface of pathogens

Biology (57 decks)

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