Cellular Pathology

Question 1

____________ is the study of the nature and cause of disease; changes in structure and function of a condition produced by disease

Answer 1

pathology

Question 2

_________________ is the study of how function is altered by disease

Answer 2

pathophysiology

Question 3

_____________ is the state of dynamic equalibrium of the internal environment of the body that is maintained by the ever changing processes of feedback and regulation in response to external or internal changes

Answer 3

Homeostasis

Question 4

subtle external or internal changes will cause the equalirium to shift until a new higher or lower steady state is reached: ________________.

Answer 4

temporary adaptation

Question 5

_______1_____ occurs when the cell is unable to adapt; it is _______2_____ or _____3_______ depending on the magnitude and duration of the stress

Answer 5

1- cell injury
2 - reversible
3 - irreversible

Question 6

_______________ is the transient impairment in the cell’s normal structure or function; removal of the stressor returns the cell to the original steady steady state; typically short lived

Answer 6

reversible cell injury

Question 7

Signs of reversible cell injury are:

Answer 7

cellular swelling; blebs; dilation of the ER/accumulation of fluid; ribosomes released from RER; nucleus remains intact

Question 8

______________ is when subtle stress remains present over a period of time, stable alterations with the cell take place, called adaptations

Answer 8

chronic cell injury

Question 9

_____1________ is when cells are exposed to large doses of toxins or severe hypoxia, suffer overwhelming injury and cannot recover; eventually results in cell death called ____2_____

Answer 9

1- irreversible cell injury

2 - nerosis

Question 10

a more severe presentation of reversible cell injury signs happen in irreversible cell injury including additional signs such as:

Answer 10

cellular swelling, blebs, dilation of the ER/accumulation of fluid; ribosomes released from RER; nuclear structure and functions are disrupted; nuclear changes such as PHKNOSIS (clumping), KARYORRHEXIS (fragmentation), an KARYOLYSIS (dissolution).

Question 11

___________ refers to cell death in an organ or tissue that is still part of a living organism; lysosomes release their digestive enzymes initiating degradation which many be aided by enzymes released from inflammatory cells; enzymes that are released lead to elevated levels of enzymes in the blood

Answer 11

necrosis

Question 12

degradation of cells is followed by ____________ of the dead tissue in preparation for healing- repair or regeneration

Answer 12

phagocytosis

Question 13

____________ is the most common type of necrosis; cells/organs retain their original form and consistency; most often due to ischemia /hypoxia

Answer 13

coagulative necrosis or dry gangrene

Question 14

____________ is the dissolution of tissues, soft and mushy; cells lose their contours; occurs in the brain or in skin or joint infections

Answer 14

Liquefactive necrosis or wet gangrene

Question 15

___________ is when cells die and fall apart, debris appears cheeselike; typically found with lung tuberculosis; damaged areas is walled of by macrophages and lymphocytes forming a granduloma

Answer 15

caseous necrosis (“cheesy” necrosis)

Question 16

____________ is formation of calcium soaps; pancreatic enzymes degrade lipids into free fatty acids and glycerol; limited to fat tissue and pancreas

Answer 16

fatty necrosis

Question 17

____________ is caused by trauma in blood vessel wall; plasma proteins accumulate and pink deposits are formed in the tunica media between smooth muscle cells

Answer 17

fibrinoid necrosis

Question 18

_____________ is endogenously programed cell dealth is a normal physiological process; it is designed to remove worn out cells

Answer 18

Apoptosis

Question 19

List some causes of cell injury:

Answer 19

Hypoxia or Anoxia, Toxic (chemical) Injury [externally], Microbial Pathogens/Infectious Agents, Immune Reactions, Genetic Factors/Genetic Errors, Physical Factors, Nutritional Factors

Question 20

____1________ is defined as a reduction of oxygen; _____2______ is the absence of oxygen

Answer 20

1 - hypoxia

2 - anoxia

Question 21

What are some major causes of hypoxia or anoxia?

Answer 21

internal or external causes; deficient blood supply - ischemia, inadequate transportation of blood in cirulation by red blood cells; interruption of oxygen supply; inhibition of blood oxygenation in lungs; inhibition of cellular respiration

Question 22

___________ refers to substances know to directly toxic to cells (i.e. mercury, lead, arsenic and drugs)

Answer 22

direct toxicity

Question 23

____________ refers to substances that must be metabolically activated by the liver to become toxic (i.e. acetaminophen, codeine)

Answer 23

indirect toxicity

Question 24

_____________ is the formation of free oxygen radicals (oxygen atoms lose one of their paired electrons) is a normal metabolic process; is a condition where free oxygen radicals are produced in excess which exceeds the body’s ability to neutralize and eliminate them.

Answer 24

oxidative stress

Question 25

_____________ refers to cell injury caused by bacteria and viruses, fugi, protozoa etc., external cause; bacteria often produce exotoxins; viruses either invade and destroy the cell directly (RNA viruses) or inject their DNA into the cellular genome causing the cell to produce foreign viral protein

Answer 25

Microbial Pathogens/Infectious Agents

Question 26

____________ our immune system is able to destroy invaders (foreign antigens) by secreting biologically active substances in large amounts during an immune responce; sometimes the immune system overreacts; inappropriate immune responses are internal causes of cell injury

Answer 26

Immune Reactions

Question 27

_______________ is mostly internal causes; alteration in structure or number of chromosomes that causes multiple abnormalities (i.e. Down Syndrome); single gene mutations that cause changes in the amount or function of proteins

Answer 27

Genetic Factors/Genetic Errors

Question 28

______________ include external causes; trauma (blunt or penetrating)l repetitive mechanical stress; extreme temperatures (hot or cold); radiation or electricity

Answer 28

Physical factors

Question 29

____________ include external cause; deficiencies of essential amino acids; vitamin or mineral imbalances; excessive nutrient intake

Answer 29

Nutritional Factors

Question 30

_________1____ is when cells are able to adapt to increased work demands or threats to survival by changing their size, number and form: ________2______ ; once the cause is revered most cells revert to normal

Answer 30

1- cell adaptations

2- adaptations

Question 31

common cell adapations include: __________, __________, ____________, ____________, and ___________.

Answer 31

atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia

Question 32

_____1____ is decrease in the size of the cell, tissue or organ; _______2______ occurs with aging and involves the whole body (i.e. bone loss quite normal with aging, atropy of the thymus gland with aging); __________3_______ occurs as a result of inadequate nutrition or inadequate stimulation (i.e. spinal chord injury leading to a decrease in muscle mass of the affect muscles)

Answer 32

1 - atrophy
2 - physiological atrophy
3- pathological atrophy

Question 33

______________ is increase in size of the tissue or organ due to increase in the size of individual cells (i.e. skeletal muscle in a weightlifter or hypertrophy of the left heart in hypertension

Answer 33

hypertrophy

Question 34

____________ an increase in the size of a tissue or organ as a result of an increase in the number or individual cells; takes place in the tissues that can divide; typically occurs because of hormonal stimulation; often occurs together with hypertrophy

Answer 34

hyperplasia

Question 35

___________ is characterized by change of one cell type to another; (i.e. collumnar cells of broncial mucosa when expised to cigarette smoke change into stratified squamous epithelial cells); if stimulus is removed, the cells will concert back

Answer 35

Metaplasia

Question 36

____________ is the formation of abnormal tissue, increase in cell numbers with altered morphology and loss of histologic organization; strongly implicated as a precurser of cancer aka preneoplastic alteration; adaptive process that can revert to former structure and function

Answer 36

Dysplasia

Question 37

_____________ overload of/and deposition of carious substances or result of metabolic disturbances that prevent the excretion of those substances

Answer 37

Intracellular Accumulations

Question 38

___________ is irreversible cell damage; we can only minimize the effects, potential for improving aerobic capacity; various components of cells are subject to changes: cell membrane, ribosomes, mitochondria; prime target is mitochondrial DNA; pathological changes vary individually

Answer 38

Cellular aging

Question 39

What are the names of the theories that attempt to explain the causes of aging?

Answer 39

Wear and Tear Hypothesis; Genetic Theory; Free radical theory; Telomere aging clock theory

Question 40

___________ describes dysfunctions at the cellular level in the tissues such as the heart and brain; cells simply wear out and are not replaced

Answer 40

Wear and Tear Hypothesis

Question 41

__________ describes how cell death is a genetically predetermined process

Answer 41

Genetic Theory

Question 42

_________ describes how free oxygen radicals cause DNA damage

Answer 42

Free Radical Theory

Question 43

_______________ describes how delomeres are pieces of DNA that form the tips of our genes - they become shorter the more often a cell divides; the older we get the shorter the telomeres get - this can lead to loss of functional part of chromosomes and cell death; telomeres act as a molecular clock signaling the onset of the non dividing state of a cell called senescense

Answer 43

Telomere aging clock theory