Ch 44 Internal Transport Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
Vertebrates Circulatory System
A
Closed circulatory system of blood vessels, heart, lymphatic vessels, lymph’s, thymus, spleen and liver.
2
Q
Open Invertebrate Circulatory System
A
Heart pumps blood vessels that have open ends.
3
Q
Hemolymph
A
Blood and interstitial fluid in open circulatory systems
4
Q
Hemocoel
A
Collective sinuses filled with fluid from open ended vessels
5
Q
How many chambers are in a mollusk’s open circulatory system?
A
Three chambers. Two atria and one ventricle that pumps oxygenated hemolymph into blood vessels that conduct into hemocoel. Hemolymph passes to vessels that lead to gills where it is recharged with oxygen. Cycle repeats
6
Q
Hemocyanin
A
Hemolymph pigment; containing copper that transports oxygen. Bluish color when oxygenated.
7
Q
What are Ostia in arthropods with open circulatory system?
A
Tiny openings equipped with valves that prevent backflow
8
Q
What is a rudimentary closed circulatory system?
A
Their system consists of a complete network of blood vessels but no heart. Blood flow depends on contraction of large blood vessels. Do have contractile vessels (act as hearts)
9
Q
Which direction does ventral vessel conduct blood?
A
Posteriorly
10
Q
What direction does dorsal vessel conduct blood?
A
Anteriorly
11
Q
How are the lateral, dorsal and ventral blood vessels oxygenated?
A
Branch to the surface where it is oxygenated.
12
Q
Do Earthworms have hemoglobin?
A
Yes, but they are no held on RBCs, but rather dissolved in blood plasma.
13
Q
Mollusks, fast-moving cephalopods need more oxygen supply, is their closed circulatory system any different?
A
Yes, they have accessory hearts at the base of gills. It speeds passage of blood through gills.
14
Q
How many functions does vertebrate closed circulatory system provide?
A
Eight. 1)transport: nutrients. 2) O2. 3) wastes. 4) hormones.
5) Maintain fluid balance. 6) Maintain and distribute metabolic heat. 7) Maintain pH. 8) Defends body against microorganisms
15
Q
What is the fluid consisting in blood?
A
55 % Plasma
16
Q
What is plasma consisted of?
A
Water 92 %. Proteins 7 %. Salts. Dissolved gases, nutrients, wastes and hormones. When fibrinogens are removed, serum is remained.
17
Q
What are the plasma proteins?
A
Fibrinogen. Alpha, Betta and Gamma globulins. Albumin.
18
Q
What plasma protein is responsible for blood clotting process?
A
Fibrinogen
19
Q
What is Alpha globulin involved in?
A
Include certain hormones and proteins that transport hormones; Prothrombin, protein for blood clotting; high-density lipoproteins (HDL), transport fat and cholesterol.
20
Q
What are beta globulins involved in?
A
Lipoproteins that transport fats and cholesterol; proteins that transport certain vitamins and minerals.
21
Q
What are the Gamma Globulins involved in?
A
Contain antibodies that provide immunity. (Fight and reduce diseases)
22
Q
Which plasma proteins mostly help regulate distribution of fluid between plasma and interstitial fluid. (Osmotic pressure)
A
Albumins and Globulins, as they are too large to pass readily through walls of blood vessels.
23
Q
How is the blood’s pH regulated?
A
Plasma proteins (and hemoglobin) are good acid-base buffers. Maintain pH of 7.4.
24
Q
What is the structure and function of Erythrocyte
A
Biconcave, high ratio surface area to volume, efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Transports oxygen in the blood.
25
Where are erythrocytes produced?
Red bone marrow of certain bones: vertebrae, ribs, breastbone, skull bones, and long bones.
26
What are hemoglobin?
Oxygen-transporting pigment that gives vertebrate a red color.
27
How is the red blood cell production regulated?
The hormone erythropoietin which kidneys release in response to a decrease in oxygen.
28
What is Anemia? What causes it?
Deficiency in hemoglobin. By three things.
1) Loss of blood by internal bleeding.
2) Decreased production of RBC (vitamin B12 deficiency).
3) Increased rate of RBC destruction.
29
What are leukocytes’ function?
WBCs fight off harmful bacteria and other microorganisms
30
How many does human have of each: granular and agranular leukocytes?
3 granular, 2 agranular
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Describe granular leukocytes:
Large, lobed nuclei, distinctive granules in cytoplasm. Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils.
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What is the function of neutrophils
Phagocytic cells. Their granules contain digestive enzymes to digest ingested material
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What is the function of Eosinophils?
Allergic reactions and parasitic infestation.
Promote inflammation.
Have large granules stained red with eosin. Acidic dye. Peroxidase enzyme degrade cell membranes of parasitic worms and protozoa.
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What is the function of Basophils?
Allergic reactions.
Granules contain histamine and heparin.
Have blue granules.
Do not contain lysosomes.
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What do heparin and histamine do?
Histamine: dilates blood vessels and makes capillaries permeable.
Heparin: Anticoagulant (prevents inappropriate clotting) and speeds up fat removal from blood.
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What are the two agranular leukocytes?
Lymphocyte and Monocytes.
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What are Lymphocytes involved in?
Produce antibodies and other directly attack pathogens
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Describe Monocytes function? What two types does it differentiate into?
During infection, migrate from blood to tissues. They phagocytize cells and remove toxic molecules. They differentiate into Macrophages and Dendritic cells.
39
How many WBCs does the human blood have per microliter?
7000 WBCs per microliter. (Only 1 for 700 RBCs since 5 million RBCs per microliter)
40
What is leukemia?
Is a form of blood cancer where WBCs rapidly multiply in bone marrow without maturing. Crowd out RBCs and platelets causing anemia and impaired clotting.
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What is the most abundant cell in the blood?
Red blood cells (5 million)
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What is a differential count for?
It analyzes the different proportions of WBCs for diagnostic aid.
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How many Platelets per microliter?
300,000 platelets per microliter.
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Where are platelets (thrombocytes) originated from?
Pinched off the very large cells in bone marrow. Platelets are fragments of cytoplasm enclosed by a membrane.
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What is the function of platelets?
Blood clotting. (Vessels constrict to reduce blood flow). Release substances to attract other platelets.
Platelets stick to collagen fibers of blood vessels.
Can also stimulate immune system.
46
What is prothrombin?
A plasma protein manufactured in the liver. (Requiring vitamin K)
47
After a 5 minute temporary clot, how is the permanent clot done?
Calcium ions and compound released from platelets convert prothrombin to thrombin.
Thrombin catalyzes conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (insoluble protein).
Fibrin uses long threads to web the clot.
48
What are arteries and arterioles?
Arteries: carry blood away from the heart to tissues.
Arterioles: branched arteries.
49
What are capillaries?
Capillaries are microscopic vessels that form networks within the tissues then merge to form veins.
50
What are the veins?
Veins are the blood vessels that carry the blood back towards the heart.
51
How many layers does the wall of the artery have?
Three layers.
Innermost endothelium layer (resembles simple squamous)
Middle layer: connective tissue and smooth muscle cells
Outer layer: consists of connective tissue rich in elastic and collagen fibers.
52
Can gases and nutrients pass the thick walls of arteries and veins?
No, materials are exchanged between capillaries and interstitial fluid.
53
How blood pressure and volume of blood in vessels articulated?
Vasoconstriction: constricting of smooth muscle of arteriole wall
Vasodilation: relax of smooth muscle
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What are the small vessels that directly link arterioles with venules?
Metarterioles
55
What is a precapillary sphincters? :)
Located between metarterioles and true capillaries. Provide fine control of blood flow to each organ and its subdivisions. It open and closes to direct blood to specific tissues
56
How many chambers does a fish heart have?
One atria and one ventricle.
It’s swimming action facilitate circulation.
57
What is sinus venous?
Thin wall of the heart. Receives blood returning from the tissues.
58
What double circuit do amphibians have?
Pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. Oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood are kept apart. Still has two atrial and one ventricle.
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What is the conus arteriosus of amphibians?
Artery equipped with a fold that keeps blood separate (like a valve).
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What is the pathway for poor oxygenated blood in amphibians?
Sinus venosus -> right atrium -> single ventricle -> conus arteriosus -> pulmonary circulation -> lungs and skin
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What is the pathway of rich oxygenated blood in amphibians?
Left atrium -> single ventricle -> conus arteriosus -> systemic circulation -> tissues of body
62
How is the reptile heart different? Although it has double circuit circulation.
A wall decides the single ventricle. Minimizes mixing of poor-oxygenated blood with rich-oxygenated blood.
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In what animals are the ventricle walls completely separated?
Crocodiles and alligators. Birds and Mammals.
64
What do the conus arteriosus and sinus venosus evolutions to?
Conus arteriosus: base of the aorta (largest artery)
Sinus venosus: sinoatrial node (SN node)
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How is the pressure in systematic and pulmonary circulations?
Systematic circulation; high blood pressure (Leads to higher metabolic rate)
Pulmonary circulation; low blood pressure (to protect alveoli)
66
What is the pattern of blood circulation in birds and mammals?
Veins -> right atrium -> right ventricle -> pulmonary arteries -> capillaries in lungs -> pulmonary vein -> left atrium -> left ventricle -> aorta -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> veins
67
How many times ad blood does the human heart beat?
2.5 billion beats in an average lifetime.
300 million L of blood
68
What is the pericardium?
A tough connective tissue sac, enclosing the heart. Inside and outside is a layer of endothelium. Between the two surfaces is a small pericardial cavity filled with fluid.
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What does the septum do? Whats it called between the atria? And between the ventricles?
Separate the right atrium and ventricle from the left. Between the atria: interatrial septum. Between the ventricles: intraventricular septum
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What is the fossa ovalis?
Used to be foramen ovale in fetal life. Window that used too let blood short cut from the right to the left atrium. When the lungs were nonfunctional during fetal development.
71
What is the auricle? And where is it?
Auricles lie at the top of each atrium and are small muscular pouches.
72
What are the two valves in the heart chambers?
The right atrioventricular valve, or tricuspid valve.
The left atrioventricular valve, bicuspid or mitral valve.
73
How are the valves held in place?
By heart strings, ‘chordae tendineae’ that attach valves to papillary muscles of ventricles.
74
Where are the semilunar valves located?
Between the ventricles and great vessels of the heart.
75
Name the two semilunar valves.
The aortic valve, between the left ventricle and the aorta.
The pulmonary valve, between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery.
76
Contractions of cardiac muscle begin within the muscle itself or depends on the nervous system.
Begins within the muscle itself independently.
77
How are cardiac muscle fibers joined?
By intercalated discs. Each disc is a type of gap junction.
78
How many cone in molecules is a gap junction composed of?
6 connexins
79
Compared to skeletal muscles, which action potential lasts longer? Why?
Action potential of cardiac muscles last longer since Ca2+ enter during depolarization. And K+ channels stay open when the cell is at resting potential but closes during depolarization
80
What fires the action potential?
Specialized cardiac muscle called the SA node or Sinoatrial node.
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Where is the sinoatrial node located?
Located in the posterior wall of the right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava.
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How is the SA node triggered?
Ca2+ channels open.
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Where is the action potential then conducted?
Through atrial muscles then Atrioventricular node (AV).
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Why is there a delay from the SA node to the AV node?
So that the atria finish contracting before ventricles begin to contract.
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Where is the atrioventricular node located?
Right atrium along the lower part of the septum.
87
How are purkinje fibers formed?
Branching of the AV node to make up the AV bundle. The AV bundle divides sending branches into each ventricle forming small Purkinie fibers.
88
What is the pathway of action potential in the human heart?
SA node -> arrival muscle fibers -> AV node -> AV bundle _> right and left bundle branches -> Purkinjie fibers -> conduct impulses to muscle fibers of both ventricles -> ventricles contract
89
What is an EKG? Or ECG.
Electrocardiogram that amplifies the electrical currents from the heart.
90
What does the cardiac cycle consist of?
One complete heartbeat (0.8 s):
Atrial systole and ventricular diastole-then atrial diastole and ventricular systole.
91
What is diastole?
The period of relaxation
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What is systole?
The period of contraction.
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What is the lub-dub sound of the heart?
Due to the valves closing in the heart
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What is the ‘lub’ part?
Ventricular systole: closing of tricuspid and mitral valves
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What is the short ‘dup’ sound from?
The closing of semilunar valves during ventricular diastole.
96
What is a heart murmur?
A soft hissing noise in the ‘lub-shhh’ that indicate injured valves.
97
What is Arterial Pulse?
Temporary expansion and recoil of an artery as left ventricle pumps blood into aorta.
98
How is the heart rate regulated by nervous system?
By sensory receptors on walls of blood vessels and heart chambers sensitive to blood pressure changes. Medulla of the brain is responsible.
99
What autonomic nervous systems serve the SA node?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. They have opposite effects
100
What neurotransmitters do what nerves release to slow the heart?
Parasympathetic release Acetylcholine: slows rate of depolarization by allowing K+ to exit.
101
What neurotransmitter does what nerve release to speed the heart?
Sympathetic nerves release Norepinephrine that speeds and strengthens contractions of the heart. Stimulates Ca2+ channel opening during depolarization.
102
How do the neurotransmitters Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine act on the channels of cardiac muscle?
Indirectly: signal transduction involving a G protein.
103
How is the signal transduction for norepinephrine neurotransmitters?
Norepinephrine binds to beta-adrenergic receptors. -> activates G protein -> ATP converts to cAMP -> cAMP activates protein kinase -> phosphorylates Ca2+ channels to open easily-> faster action potentials -> faster heart rates
104
What drug targets beta-adrenergic receptors? What is this drug used for?
Beta blockers, blocks the action of norepinephrine on the heart in treating hypertension.
105
What hormones speed up the heart? Secreted by which gland?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine speed up the heart in response to stressor. Secreted by adrenal gland.
106
What does high body temperature to do the heart rate?
It speeds it up.
107
What is the stroke volume?
The volume one ventricle pumps during one beat.
108
How does acytecholine perform signal transduction in parasympathetic?
Acetycholine binds to receptor on plasma membrane of cardiac muscle. The receptor activates G protein. G protein opens K+ gate. K+ leaves _> hyperpolarization -> action potentials occur slower -> heart rate decreases.
109
What is the venous return?
The amount of blood the veins deliver to the heart.
110
What is Starling’s Law?
The greater the venous return, the stronger the contraction of the heart. (Sympathetic and adrenal hormones strengthen it)
111
What is the Cardiac Output?
The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle to the aorta in one minute. Stroke volume x heart rate (in 1 min)
5L/min
Varies with body’s needs
112
How is blood pressure determined?
Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood on the blood vessel’s inner wall.
By the cardiac output, blood volume, and resistance to blood flow.
113
What happens when CO (Cardiac Output) increases?
The blood pressure will rise.
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What happens when CO (Cardiac Output) decreases?
Blood pressure decreases.
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How can salt intake (water retention) cause high blood pressure?
Blood volume increases due to water retention that increases blood pressure.
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What is peripheral resistance?
The resistance to blood flow caused by blood viscosity and by friction between blood and wall of blood vessel’s.
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What causes friction between blood and wall of blood vessels?
A small change in blood vessel diameter can cause a big change in blood pressure.
The length and diameter of blood vessel determine the amount of surface area in contact with the blood. Diameter of arterioles can change.
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Does constriction of blood vessels increase or decrease blood pressure?
Constriction of blood vessels increase blood pressure.
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What blood pressure is considered prehypertensive?
120-130 systolic 80-89 diastolic. Lifestyle changes must be done to prevent cardiovascular disease and stroke.
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What value is for hypertension patients?
140 systolic and 90 diastolic. Risk factor for atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases. (Heart works to pump against resistance in blood vessels and arterioles)
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What is the equation for blood pressure?
Blood pressure= Blood flow x Peripheral Resistence.
Blood flow affected by: cardiac output and blood volume
Peripheral Resistance: Blood viscosity and vasoconstriction
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In what form is blood pressure expressed?
In the form of a fraction. Systole being the numerator and daistolic as denominator.
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How is the blood pressure in the veins? Is there backflow?
The blood pressure in the veins is low.
Low resistance, large diameter, smooth walls.
The pressure is so low in veins that they are equipped with valves that prevent back flow.
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How is the blood pressure in the arteries?
Higher pressure than veins due to ventricular systole and small diameters.
127
Give a reason why people faint related to blood pressure.
When pressure increases in capillaries due to pooling of blood in veins, 20% of blood is forced out of circulation. Arterial blood falls dramatically. Blood flow to brain reduces. Can cause faint.
128
If a person faints, why should we not pick them up?
Lifting a person who fainted might cause circulatory shock and even death. Fainting is a protective response since lying horizontally increases blood supply to brain.
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How is blood pressure regulated?
Specialized receptors in walls of certain arteries.
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What are Baroreceptors?
Specialized receptors in walls of certain arteries and the heart wall.
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How do baroreceptors work?
When BP rises, baroreceptors stretch, messages sent to cardiac and vasomotor centers in medulla. Cardiac center stimulates parasympathetic nerves to slow the heart. Vasomotor area inhibits sympathetic nerves that constrict arterioles -> vasodilation. Lower BP.
132
What hormones are involved in regulating **low** blood pressure?
Renin (plasma proteins) released by kidneys. Activates renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway.
Activates Angiotensin II (powerful vasoconstrictor)
Synthesis and release of aldosterone by adrenal gland.
Aldosterone increases Na+ retention. Greater fluid retention and increase blood volume.
133
What happens when the body gets dehydrated?
Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) -> reabsorption of water in kidneys -> blood volume rises -> higher blood pressure
134
What happens when blood volume increases?
Atria of heart release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). Increases sodium excretion. Large volume of dilute urine produced, BP decreases.
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What happens when BP is high?
Nitric oxide helps regulate blood pressure by vasodilation.
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What does the Pulmonary Circulation connect to?
The heart and the lungs
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What does the systemic circulation connect to?
The heart with all the body tissues.
138
What does the pulmonary circulation do?
It oxygenates the blood.
139
What is the only artery in the human body that carries oxygen poo blood?
Pulmonary Artery.
140
List the pathway of pulmonary circulation
Right atrium -> right ventricle -> pulmonary arteries -> pulmonary capillaries -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium
141
What does the systematic circulation do?
Delivers blood to the tissues.
142
What are some principle branching arteries from the aorta?
1. Coronary arteries to the heart wall itself.
2. Carotid arteries to the brain.
3. Subclavian arteries to the shoulder region.
4. Mesentric artery to the intestines.
5. Renal arteries to the kidneys.
6. Iliac arteries to the legs.
143
Name the veins of return in the systematic circulation.
1. Jugular veins in the brain
2. Subclavian veins from the shoulders.
These two’s main vein: superior vena cava
3. Renal veins from kidneys
4. Common iliac veins from lower limbs
5. Hepatic veins from the liver
Their main vein: Inferior vena cava
144
List the pathway of systematic circulation of lower limbs:
Left atrium -> left ventricle -> aorta -> right common iliac artery -> smaller arteries in legs -> capillaries in legs -> small veins in legs -> common iliac vein -> inferior vena cava -> right atrium
145
How does the heart obtain blood supply in most fishes and small amphibians?
They have sponges hearts -> by diffusion
146
How do vertebrates (birds and mammals) obtain circulation to cardiac muscle?
Coronary circulation. Coronary arteries give rise to capillaries within heart wall. Coronary veins join to large vein, coronary sinus, empties directly into right atrium.
147
Whats coronary sinus?
Empties poor oxygenated blood from coronary capillaries to right atrium.
148
What happens when coronary arteries are blocked?
Myocardial Infarction
149
What is the Hepatic Portal System? What two organs does it link?
Exception to artery - capillary - vein pathway.
Hepatic portal vein delivers nutrients from intestine to liver.
Vein goes into tiny blood sinuses.
Liver restores nutrients in sinuses
Sinuses merge to form hepatic veins which deliver blood to an inferior vena cava.
150
What does the lympa
151
What does the lymphatic system do?
1. Collects and returns interstitial fluid to the blood
2. Launches immune responses that defend the body against disease organisms
3. Absorbs lipids from digestive tract
152
What does the lymphatic system consist of?
1. Extensive network of lymphatic vessels that conduct lymph
2. Lymph tissue (connective tissue with large numbers of lymphocytes organized into **lymph nodes** and lymph nodules.
3. Spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils.
153
What is lymph?
Clear watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid.
154
Whats the general pathway of lymphatics?
Lymphatic capillaries -> lymphatic veins -> lymph nodes.
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What part of the body do the lymphatics all over the body go to conduct in?
Shoulders. Joined at the base of the subclavian veins by ducts: thoracic duct on left side, and right lymphatic duct on the right.
156
Is there a lymphatic duct in the left shoulder?
No, it’s called a thoracic duct.
157
What are tonsils?
Masses of lymph tissues in pharyngeal region (oral cavity and throat) protect respiratory system from infections.
158
When enlarged, what are the pharyngeal tonsils called in the back of the nose?
Adenoids
159
How does lymph move in mammals if some vertebrates have ‘hearts’ that pulsate and squeeze the lymph across.
Lymphatic vessels themselves pulsate. Valves prevent back-flow.
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How is the rate of lymph?
Slow and variable.
161
What is net filtration pressure?
The tendency for plasma to leave the blood at the arterial end of a capillary and enter interstitial fluid.
162
What is hydrostatic pressure?
Blood pressure against capillary wall.
163
Why does plasma flow into interstitial fluid?
Pressure of blood in capillary is greater than the osmotic pressure of interstitial fluid.
164
What is lymphedema?
Obstruction of lymphatic vessels causing swelling from excessive accumulation of interstitial fluid.
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How are endothelial cells oriented in lymphatic capillaries?
Overlapped, like swinging doors that go in one direction.
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How does interstitial fluid enter capillaries?
Through slit like openings in endothelial cells of capillaries
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At the venous end of capillaries, how does blood return to capillaries?
Hydrostatic pressure of capillaries is much lower. Osmotic pressure of bloods draws fluid back into capillaries.
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