CH 5-7: Persuasion, Conformity, Group Influence Flashcards
1
Q
When we process persuasive messages (2)
A
- *Motivated to do so:**
- Involvement/goal relevance
- Personal responsibility to the message
- Need for cognition –> individual difference of whether you like to think about things or not (more motivated if you have a high need for cognition)
- *Able to do so:**
- Distracted –> when you are minimally distracted
- Knowledge –> less attention paid when one has a lack of knowledge
- Time pressure –> when there is a time constraint, there is less attention paid
2
Q
Central v peripheral route to persuasion
A
- *Central Route:**
- Message substance is most important (explicit and reflective)
- usually swiftly changes explicit attitudes –> leads to more enduring change
- Examples:*
- logic of argument (no contradiction)
- strength of argument
- related evidence
- *Peripheral Route:**
- Superficial cues are most important (quick rule of thumb)
- slowly bulds implicit attitudes through repeated associations
- Examples:*
- message length –> long = factual = good
- communicator attractiveness –> halo effect: 1 good characteristic = many good characteristics; attractive = smart
- communicator expertise
3
Q
Study testing the elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
A
- students heard a message about institutive comprehensive examinations at their University
- Independent variables:
- Argument strength (strong or weak)
- Personal relevance (next year or 10 years for now)
- Source expertise (local high school class or Princeton University Prof)
- High personal relevance = the source didn’t matter as much bc they weren’t paying attention to peripheral cues, but low personal relevance = large difference between favourability of message btwn the source
- High personal relevance = favourable attitudes when argument is strong but low personal relevance = gap of persuasion isn’t as large btwn strong and weak arguments
- Persuasion via peripheral processing is temporary, bc they don’t have good reasons to support their attitudes
- Persuasion via central argument is more resisting and enduring bc they have strong reasons in support
4
Q
The elements of persuasion (4)
A
- communicator
- content
- channel of communication
- audience
5
Q
Communicator: Credibility
A
- The impact of a non-credible person may correspondingly increase over time if ppl remembers the message better than the reason for discounting it –> this delayed persuasion is called the sleeper effect
- “Supermarket tabloid effect” –> sensational headline that gets stuck in your head causes you to bring it up at a later time when you’ve forgotten the source
- why misinformation tends to persist bc we remember the info, but not why the source wasn’t credible
- *Perceived Expertise:**
- To become an authoritative expert, one should begin by saying things the audience agrees with to seem smart
- To appear credible, one must also speak confidently; a charismatic, energetic, confident-seeming person is more convincing
- *Perceived Trustworthiness:**
- Speech type also affects a speaker’s apparent trustworthiness (making direct eye contact)
- Trustworthiness is also higher if the audience believes the communicator is not trying to persuade them
- We perceive as sincere those who argue against their own self-interest, and being able to suffer for one’s beliefs helps convince people of one’s sincerity
- Trustworthiness and credibility increase when a people talk fast –> rated as more objective intelligent, and knowledgeable
- Sources that are clearly biased but who openly declare bias are actually seen as more credible
6
Q
Communicator: Attractiveness and liking
A
- We are more likely to respond to those we like, and our liking may open us up to the communicator’s arguments (central route) or it may trigger positive associations when we see the product later (peripheral route)
- We tend to like people and are more influenced by those that are like us (similarity)
- Similarity is more important given the presence of factor x and credibility is more important given the absence of factor x –> factor x is whether the topic is one of subjective preference or objective reality
- When choice concerns matter of personal value or taste = similar; for judgments of fact = dissimilar
7
Q
Classic Persuasion/Social influence techniques (6)
A
- reciprocity
- commitment and consistency
- social proof
- liking
- authority
- scarcity
8
Q
Persuasion technique: Reciprocity
A
- Takes advantage of a powerful norm in society: return a favour
- Why small gifts and free samples work, as we feel somewhat indebted to buy something later
- Concession: door-in-face technique –> more compliance when first asked to put a billboard sized sign, and then asked to put a small sign in their lawn, as they feel the researcher is conceding (gift to participant so the participant should return the favour)
9
Q
Persuasion technique: Commitment and consistency
A
- People prefer to see their attitudes as consistent and their attitudes and behaviours as consistent
- Foot-in-door –> compliance by preceding with a smaller request
10
Q
Persuasion technique: Social Proof
A
- Using social influence; we often judge the acceptability of our own behaviours by using the attitudes and behaviours of others as a reference point
- E.g., if a lot of ppl are eating in a restaurant it must be good, if there are a lot of tips in the tip jar the worker must be good so I should leave a tip too
11
Q
Persuasion technique: Liking
A
- We are more likely to comply with people we know and like
- Attractiveness- halo effect –> one positive quality = a lot of positive qualities = increased liking = increased compliance
- Businesses where people send to friends –> liking is already there bc of the existing relationship so more compliance
12
Q
Persuasion technique: Authority
A
- We are more likely to comply w people who are perceived to have authority
13
Q
Persuasion technique: Scarcity
A
- Things that are hard to obtain are viewed as more valuable –> both actual and perceived limitedness
- We don’t want to miss on opportunities when they have been afforded to us
- Scarcity can be made w out making things less available –> Campbell’s soup being on sale = 4 cans sold per person; Campbell’s soup and a limit of 15 cans per customer while supplies last = 10 cans sold per person
14
Q
Message Content: Reason v emotion
A
- Well-educated or analytical people are responsive to rational appeals; thought, involved audiences travel the central route
- Disinterested audiences like the peripheral route, and are more affected by how much they like the communicator
- When initial attitudes are formed primarily through emotional appeals, their later attitudes are formed primarily through emotional appeals (same for intellectual attitudes)
- *The Effect of Good Feelings:**
- more convinced when eating good food or listening to music
- Good feelings can enhance persuasion partly by enhancing positive thinking
- Ppl in a good mood view the world through rose-tinted glasses and make faster, more impulsive decisions (peripheral cues)
- *The Effect of Arousing Fear:**
- Fear-arousing messages can be potent when trying to get a person to cut down smoking, brush their teeth, drive more carefully, etc.
- Often, the more fear evoked, the more an audience responds
- Playing on fear works best if a message leads people not only to fear the severity and likelihood of a threatened event, but also to perceive a solution and feel capable of implementing it
- Another approach is to enhance people’s perceptions of susceptibility to a particular illness to make them more likely to expose themselves to messages about the topic and engage in adaptive behaviours
15
Q
Message Content: Discrepency
A
- Disagreement produces discomfort, and discomfort prompts people to change their opinions (dissonance)
- Greater disagreement might produce greater change but also a communicator who proclaims an uncomfortable message may be discredited
- A credible source can elicit considerable opinion change when advocating a position greatly discrepant from the recipient’s
- Deeply involved people tend to accept only a narrow range of views, and to them a moderately discrepant message may seem foolishly radical, especially if the message argues an opposing view rather than being a more extreme version of their own view
- To construct messages that may deradicalize committed terrorists: build messages upon elements of their pre-existing beliefs
16
Q
Message Content: One-sided v two-sided appeals
A
- Acknowledging the opposing arguments might confuse the audience and weaken the case or it might make the message seem fairer and more disarming if it recognizes the opposition’s arguments
- A one-sided appeal was most effective with those who already agreed; an appeal that acknowledges opposing arguments worked better with those who disagree
- Experiments revealed that a two-sided presentation is more persuasive and enduring if people are aware of opposing arguments –> if your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a two-sided appeal
- For optimists, positive persuasion works the best and for pessimists, negative persuasion is more effective
17
Q
Message Content: Primacy v Recency
A
- Primacy Effect- other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence; first impressions are important
- Recency Effect- information presented last sometimes has the most influence; recency effects are less common than primacy effects
- Forgetting creates the recency effect (1) when enough time separates the two messages, and (2) when the audience commits itself soon after the second message
- When the two messages are back to back, followed by a time gap, a primacy effect usually occurs especially when the first message stimulates thinking
18
Q
Channel of Communication: Active experience v passive reception
A
- Spoken appeals are not necessarily more persuasive as an effective speaker has many hurdles to surmount: a persuasive speaker must deliver a message that gets attention and is also understandable, convincing, memorable, and compelling
- Positively received appeals are sometimes futile but not always: in the case of advertised versus unadvertised brands of aspirin, the advertised brand will sell more even though it is three times the price
- In the case of political campaigns, advertising exposure helps make an unfamiliar candidate a familiar one and mere exposure to an unfamiliar stimuli breeds liking
- Repetition also makes things believable and serves to increase fluency-the ease with which it rolls off our tongue- which increases believability
- Persuasion decreases as the significance of the issue increases –> on minor issues it’s easy to demonstrate the media’s power, but for more important issues persuasion is more difficult
19
Q
Channel of Communication: Personal v Media Influence
A
- The major influence on us is not media but our contact with people (word of mouth personal influence through creating a buzz)
- *Media Influence: The Two-Step Flow**
- Face to face influence is usually greater than media influence but the media still has power
- Two step flow of communication therefore refers to the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders who in turn influence others –> these opinion leaders are the trend setters and are perceived as experts
- This flow also reminds us that media influences penetrate the culture in subtle ways; even if the media has little direct effect on people’s attitudes they could still have big indirect effects
- *Comparing Media:**
- The more lifelike the medium, the more persuasive the message so the order of persuasiveness follows: live, face to face, video, audio, and written
- Messages are also best comprehended and recalled when written
- Comprehension is one of the first steps in the persuasion process so if the message is difficult to comprehend, persuasion should be greatest when the message is written because readers will be able to work through the message at their own pace
- Video mediums can take away control of pacing and draw attention to the communicator and away from the message itself
20
Q
Audience: Age
A
There are two possible explanations for age differences in attitudes:
- A life cycle explanation: attitudes change as people grow older
- A generational explanation: attitudes do not change; older people largely hold onto the attitudes they adopted when they were young and because these attitudes are different from those being adopted by young people, a generation gap develops
- Evidence mostly supports the generational explanation
- The teens and early 20s are important formative years where attitudes are changeable; attitudes formed then tend to stabilize through middle adulthood
- Adolescent and early adulthood experiences are formative partly because they make deep and lasting impressions
- Older adults are not necessarily inflexible; studies found that most people in their 50s and 60s had more liberal sexual and racial attitudes than they had in their 30s and 40s
- Near the end of their lives older adults may again become more susceptible to attitude change perhaps due to the decline in strength of their attitudes
21
Q
Audience: what they are thinking (3)
A
- The crucial aspect of central route persuasion is not the message but the response it evokes in a person’s mind –> if the message summons favorable thoughts it persuades us, and if it provokes us to think of contrary arguments we remain unpersuaded
- *Forewarned is Forearmed**- if you care enough to counter-argue
- When you are warned or under the impression that someone is going to try to persuade you, you will likely come up with counter arguments
- *Distraction Disarms Counterarguing:**
- Persuasion is also enhanced by a distraction that inhibits counter-arguing
- E.g., political ads promote the candidate and the visual images keep us occupied so we don’t analyze the words
- Distraction is especially effective when the message is simple
- *Uninvolved Audiences use Peripheral Cues:**
- Analytical people-those with a high need for cognition-enjoy thinking carefully and prefer central routes
- Those who like to conserve their mental resources-those were the low need for cognition-are quicker to respond to such peripheral cues such as the communicator’s attractiveness and the pleasantness of the surroundings
- the more we think about an issue the more we take the central route
- In thinking make strong messages more persuasive and (because of counter-arguing) weak messages less persuasive –> using rhetorical questions, presenting multiple speakers, repeating a message, getting peoples undistracted attention, making people feel responsible for evaluating the message are all techniques to get audience to think
22
Q
Group Indoctrination tactics (cults)
A
- On attempting to analyze what persuades people to leave behind their former beliefs and join groups, a couple considerations should be kept in mind:
- Indoctrination tactics are used by a wide variety of groups, but Cults provide useful case studies to explore persuasion as these groups are often intently analyzed
- Cult- groups typically characterized by (1) the distinctive ritual of their devotion to a God or a person, (2) isolation from surrounding evil culture, and (3) a charismatic leader; also called new religious movements
23
Q
Cults: Attitudes follow behaviour
A
- Cult leaders exploit the fact that people usually internalize commitments made voluntarily, publicly, and repeatedly
- *Compliance Breeds Acceptance:**
- New converts soon learned that membership is no trivial matter and are quickly made active members of the team
- Behavioral rituals, public recruitment, and fund raising strengthens the initiates’ identities as members and become committed advocates
- The greater the personal commitment, the more the need to justify it
- *The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon:**
- The recruitment strategy for cults exploit the foot in the door principle –> giving pamphlets and CDs first and them getting them to commit
24
Q
Cults: Persuasive elements
A
- *The Communicator:**
- successful cults typically have a charismatic leader-someone who attracts and directs the members –> someone who is credible based on the fact that audience perceives them as expert and trustworthy
- *The Message:**
- The vivid, emotional messages and the warmth and acceptance that the group showers newcomers with can be appealing
- The idea to trust the master, join the family, and gain answers
- *The Audience:**
- Recruits are often young people under age 25, still at the comparatively open age before attitude stabilized
- Some recruits are less educated and who enjoy the simplicity of message and find it difficult to counter argue, but most are middle class who overlook the contradictions of others
- Potential converts are often at a turning point in their lives, facing a personal crisis, or vacationing or living away from home –> they have needs in the cult offers them answers
25
Q
Cults: Group effects
A
- The cult typically separates members from their previous social systems and isolates them with other cult members
- Social implosion occurs where external ties weaken until the group collapses inward socially, and each person only engages with other group members causing them to lose access to counter-arguments
- These techniques- increasing behavioral commitments, persuasion, and group isolation-do not have unlimited power –> towards the end leaders can become eccentric and many members leave
- The same techniques used in cults are used in sports team, in the military during hazing, gangs, therapeutic communities (AA)
- A constructive use of persuasion is military training as it creates cohesion and commitments through some of the tactics used by leaders of cults
- Another constructive use of persuasion is in counseling and psychotherapy as it takes persuasion to change self-defeating attitudes and behaviours
26
Q
Psychology and climate change
A
- *Public Opinion About Climate Change:**
- Climate change is human-caused and in response, some of Canada, the European Union, Australia and India have either passed a carbon tax on coal or a carbon emissions trading system
- 72% of Canadians believe that global warming is mostly caused by humans, 69% of Americans, and 84% of Britain endorse these beliefs
Why do so many people fail to accept the scientific consensus? –> vivid and recent experiences often overwhelm abstract statistics (they distort our judgment)
- We make our intuitive judgments under the influence of the availability heuristic
- People will often scorn global warming in the face of a winter freeze
- Persuasive messages must be understood, but thanks to medias mixed messages and perceiving uncertainty, and reassured by the natural human optimism bias, people discount the threat
- People also exhibit a system justification- a tendency to believe in and justify the way things are in their culture and to not want to change the status quo
- We benefit from framing energy savings in attention-getting ways such as saying how much money a person will save if they switch to non CFLs
27
Q
How persuasion can be resisted (3)
A
- attitude strength
- information processing bias –> selective: exposure and attention, judgment and perception, and memory
- actively defending attitudes (reactance, strengthening personal commitment, and inoculation programs)
28
Q
Attitude strength
A
- Strong attitudes are consequential in that they bias how we perceive incoming information, whereas weak attitudes do so to a lesser degree
- Certainty refers to the level of subjective confidence or validity that people attach to their attitudes
- Certainty is high when people have a clear notion of what their attitudes are and believe that their attitudes are accurate
- Higher certainty is found to be associated with attitude stability over time, resistance to persuasion, and impact on social judgments
29
Q
Information Processing Biases
A
- Strong attitudes have been demonstrated to result in biases in how we process information
- Festinger argued that bc individuals are motivated to maintain cognitive consistency, people should be motivated to incorporate information that is consistent with their attitudes and to avoid info that is inconsistent
- Some evidence that we are better at incorporating new info if it is consistent with our existing knowledge
- These biases have been broken down by the stage at which they have an influence on info processing selective exposure and attention to info, selective processing and judgment, and selective memory
30
Q
Information Processing Biases: Selective exposure and attention
A
- Selective exposure- the extent to which people’s attitudes affect the info they expose themselves to
- Selective attention- the extent to which people’s attitudes affect how much of this information they concentrate on once they’ve been exposed to it
- In order to be a complete information processor a person must both be able and motivated to first process all of the information, and then be unbiased when processing that information
- Under many conditions people are biased in how they expose themselves to information as they might have low motivation
31
Q
Information Processing Biases: selective perception and judgment
A
- Lord, Ross, and Lepper demonstrated bias perception and judgment regarding death penalty –> participants rated the study that agreed with their own point of view as more convincing and more scientifically rigorous than the study they disagreed with
- selective effects have been found to be particularly likely to occur when attitudes are strong i.e., when attitudes are accessible
32
Q
Information Processing Biases: selective memory
A
- The idea that when people process social information they remember information that is congruent with their attitudes better than information that is incongruent with their attitudes
- it’s been found that people’s motivation and ability to be biased are important factors in biased memory
33
Q
Actively defending attitudes: Reactance
A
- Knowing that someone is trying to persuade us may even prompt us to react in the opposite direction
- Reactions refers to a motive to protect or restore our sense of freedom and arises when someone threatens our freedom of action
- E.g., liking an SO even more after discovering a parent dislikes them
34
Q
Actively defending attitudes: Strengthening personal commitment
A
- Before encountering others’ judgments, you can resist persuasion by making public commitment to your position, and having stood up for your convictions, you will become less open to what others have to say
- *Challenging Beliefs:**
- Mildly attacking a person’s position can stimulate them to commit
- When committed people were attacked strongly enough to cause them to react, but not so strongly as to overwhelm them, they became more committed
- *Developing Counter-Arguments:**
- Even weak arguments will prompt counter-arguments which are then available for a stronger attack
- Attitude inoculation- exposing people to weak attacks on their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available (like an immunization)
35
Q
Innoculation programs
A
- *Inoculating Children Against Peer Pressure to Smoke:**
- Inoculating grade 7 and 8 female students with counter-arguments to why smoking is liberating resulting in the students being half as likely to begin smoking
- These programs can also use attractive peers to communicate info, trigger students’ own cognitive processing, and get students to make a public content
- *Inoculating Children Against the Influence of Advertising:**
- Advertising that targets children are illegal in some areas
- Children are an advertiser’s dream as they are gullible, vulnerable, and an easy sell
- Researchers have found that grade 7 students who are able to think critically about ads also better resist peer pressure when they are in grade 8 and are less likely to drink alcohol in grade 9
- There is some evidence that inoculation can help teach children to resist deceptive ads
- *Implications of Attitude Inoculation:**
- It’s best not to just create stronger indoctrination of one’s current beliefs but to also reveal the reality of other existing beliefs
- People who live amid diverse views become more discerning and more likely to modify their views in response to credible arguments
- A challenge to one’s views, if refuted, is more likely to solidify one’s position that undermine it, particularly if the threatening material can be examined with like-minded others
- An ineffective appeal can be worse than non as those who reject an appeal are inoculated against further appeals
36
Q
Conformity
A
- Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief according to others (to accord with others) –> not just acting as other people act, but being affected by how they act
- The key is whether your beliefs would be the same apart from the group
- The pressure from others to conform can be implicit or explicit, and it can be real or imagined
37
Q
Private v Public Conformity
A
- Private conformity- the change in beliefs that occurs when a person privately accepts the position taken by others –>similar to persuasion and behaviour will often change along with it
- Public conformity- superficial change in overt behaviour without a corresponding change of opinion, produced by real or imagined group pressure (like compliance)
39
Q
Sherif’s Studies of norm formation
A
- example of informational/private conformity
- Autokinetic Phenomenon- the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark
- Participants were exposed individually and asked how far the light had moved
- They were brought in again, in groups, and had their answers called out –> found that after successive days, participants estimates of the apparent movement of a point of light eventually converged
- One year later the estimates reflected the group consensus and not what the participant had initially guessed (no group pressure since it was a phone call, so they actually changed what they believed to be right)
- The amount the line moves is ambiguous, so they use the behaviour of other participants to make their estimates
- “Mood linkage” –> just being around happy people can make us feel happier
- “The chameleon effect” –> the subconscious automatic behavior synchronization; behavior influences our attitudes and emotions, so the natural tendency to mimic inclined this to feel what others feel
- Suggestibility causes mimicking of things like illness and suicide causing them to come in waves
- “the Werther Effect” –> imitative suicidal behavior; suicides, and fatal auto accidents and private airplane crashes increase after well publicized suicides
41
Q
Migrams obedience studies
A
- Occurred after WWII when people were trying to come to terms with the holocaust and dispositional attributions were pervasive
- Milgram was interested in conformity (had replicated the Asch study) but wanted to examine social influence when there were severe consequences
- Obedience- change in behaviour produced by the commands of authority
- In a study where the participant was told they were testing “punishment and learning” by giving the other participant a shock for each wrong answer; the participant (teacher) has to increase the shock intensity every wrong answer and the confederate (learner) makes pleas when the intensity increases but the researcher prompts the participant saying that they must continue
- Dependent variable is how far the participants go, when/do they quit, and how many go all the way
- They had a higher number of participants than expected who complied all the way up to the maximum voltage, and those who stopped did so at a higher voltage than predicted
- Even when the protests were more compelling (had a slight heart condition), 63% still complied and the results didn’t very much for women
- The only one of the prompts was really a “command” (you must continue), so argued that it wasn’t really a study of obedience
- Similar study repeated 10 years ago, and the results were similar
- *The Ethics of Milgram’s Studies:**
- Milgram was very disturbed by his studies, and psychologists were also disturbed by his studies
- Even though nobody received a shock, but the “teachers” and the participants were stressed against their will (but these effects werent lasting and most were glad they participated)
52
Q
Summary of the classic studies of obedience
A
60
Q
Caldini’s studies of water conservation in hotels
A
The initial sign:
- Injunctive norm- we should conserve water and save our planet
- Descriptive norm- everyone else has their towel washed even when they don’t need to, so I’ll just do the same
- Environmental focus –> injunctive norm appealing to environmentalism (respect environment by reusing towel)
- Cooperative focus –> injunctive norm appealing to environmentalism as well as stating they will donate proceeds to an environmental non-profit (the best option for the environment)
- Descriptive norm –> saying 75% of guests were on board with saving water and reusing towels
- Shows the power of descriptive norms because it was the most effective
61
Q
When harnessing conformity for social good backfires
A
- Method: put norm information about power consumption on household power bills
- Descriptive: average household uses X, you are above/below the average user
- Injunctive: no face vs smiley/frowny face
- It is assumed that when you tell people where others stand, energy consumption should decrease
- Turns out it backfires for people doing good things bc it tells them they can loosen up and do more bad things –> below average users used more energy the next cycle, and with the injunctive info it was slightly minimized but it was still more than last bill
- Above average users used less power and with or without injunctive info didn’t affect much
64
Q
Social Facilitation: The Mere Presence of Others
A
- Mere presence means that the people are not competing, do not reward or punish, and in fact do nothing but be present as a passive audience, or as co-actors
- Triplett noticed cyclers ride faster when in a group
- It also improves performance and accuracy on simple motor tasks
- This is social facilitation- original: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present; current: the strengthening of dominant (prevalent) responses owing to the presence of others
- Zajonc reasoned that arousal enhances whatever tendency is dominant –> arousal enhances performance on easy tasks for which the most likely response is correct, but promotes incorrect responding on complex tasks for which the correct answer is not dominant
- In study with cockroaches, their instinct is to go towards the dark (the exit of the maze) –>They were faster with an audience and a simple maze, but slower with an audience and complex maze
- Similar effects were seen with novice v expert pool players when a confederate was watching –> experts did better and novices did worse
- Athletes, actors, and musicians perform well-practiced skills, which helps explain why they perform best when energized by the responses of a supportive audience –> Olympians doing the best at home competitions (but home-field advantage only applies for good teams)
- The effects of other people depends on how well-learned you are in the task
67
Q
Social Loafing
A
- Ringelmann found that the collective effort of tug-of-war was half the sum of individual efforts –> contrary to “unity in strength” group members may be less motivated when performing additive tasks
- feedback and experience increases individual effort
- Social loafing- the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable
- In tug of war experiment, individuals exerted less force when in a group v alone (not bc of a lack of coordination)
- In social loafing experiments individuals believe they are being evaluated only when they act alone and the group situation decrease evaluation apprehension –> when people are not accountable and can’t evaluate their efforts responsibility is diffused across all group members
- When being observed increases evaluation concerns, social facilitation occurs; when being lost in a crowd decreases evaluation concerns, social loafing occurs with additive tasks where the contributions of many add together to progress toward a goal (group projects, household chores)
- To motivate group members one strategy is to make individual performance identifiable
70
Q
Reconciling social facilitation and social loafing
A
