CH2 Flashcards
(122 cards)
1
Q
Who believed the mind was in the brain?
A
Hippocrates
2
Q
Who believed the mind was in the heart?
A
Aristotle
3
Q
Who proposed of phrenology?
A
Franz Gall
4
Q
what is phrenology?
A
The study of bumps on the skull
5
Q
what is localization of function?
A
various brain regions have particular functions
6
Q
What do phrenology and biological psychology have in common?
A
share a focus on links btwn brain and behaviour
7
Q
what is neuroplasticity?
A
the brain’s ability to change
8
Q
when is neuroplasticity greatest?
A
during childhood, but it continues throughout life
9
Q
why is the brain you were born with not the brain you will die with?
A
- neuroplasticity
- brain constantly builds new pathways as it adjusts to new experiences
10
Q
how does learning a new skill affect the structure of our brain?
A
learning and practicing a new skill can promote the development of new neural pathways and cause lasting changes in brain organization
11
Q
why do researchers study simpler animals to discover how human neural systems operate?
A
neural systems of humans and other animals like squids or sea slugs operate similarly
12
Q
what does “dendrites listen, axons speak” mean?
A
dendrites receive and integrate information, conducting it towards cell body
- axons pass message from cell body through its terminal branches to other neurons or muscles or glands
13
Q
what is the myelin sheath?
A
layer of fatty tissue that insulates axons and speeds up their nerve impulses
14
Q
what is multiple sclerosis?
A
the degeneration of the myelin sheath
- communication to muscles and brain regions slow, with diminished muscle control and impaired cognition
15
Q
what are neuroglial cells?
A
- provide nutrients and insulating myelin, guide neural connections, mop up ions and neurotransmitters
- participate in info transmission and memory
16
Q
what is the proportion of glia to neurons in more complex animal brains?
A
the proportion of glia to neurons increases
- greater concentration of glial cells mean brain has higher activity
17
Q
what is an action potential?
A
a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon, the way neurons transmit messages when stimulated
18
Q
what is depolarization?
A
the loss of the charge difference of the resting state
19
Q
Describe the action potential
A
- resting state
- neuron stimulated, brief change in electrical charge, opens Na gates, depolarization
- depolarization causes Na gates in neighbouring area to open, K gates open, repolarization
- Na/K ATPase restores resting state
20
Q
what is the neuron threshold?
A
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
21
Q
what is the refractory period?
A
- a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired
- subsequent action potentials cannot occur until axon returns to resting state
22
Q
what is the neuron’s all-or-none response?
A
increasing the level of stimulation above the threshold will not increase intensity, strength, or speed
- will increase # of neurons fired and the frequency
- neurons will fire no matter what if threshold is achieved
23
Q
how does the nervous system allow us to experience the difference between a slap and a tap on the back?
A
stronger stimuli causes more neurons to fire and to fire more frequently than happens with weaker stimuli
24
Q
what is a neuron synapse?
A
the junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
25
what are neurotransmitters?
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons
- released by sending neurons in vesicles
- travel across synaptic gap
- binds with receptors on plasma membrane of receiving neuron
26
what happens when a neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the receiving neuron?
neurotransmitter unlocks channels that allow electrically charged atoms to flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron's ready to fire
27
what is reuptake?
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
28
what happens to excess neurotransmitters?
- to stop the continuation of action potential firing, neurotransmitters are reabsorbed, drift away from the synaptic gap, or broken down by enzymes
29
what do some antidepressant medications do in the context of reuptake?
some antidepressants partially block the reuptake of mood-enhancing neurotransmitters, allowing the continuation of the mood-enhancing effects by the neurotransmitters
30
what is the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine?
enables muscle action, learning, memory
- acts as messenger at ever junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles
- when Ach released, muscle cells contract
31
what is an example of malfunction for acetylcholine?
Alzheimers - ACh-producing neurons deteriorate
- if ACh transmission blocked, muscles cannot contract and are paralyzed
32
what is the function of the neurotransmitter Dopamine?
influences movement, learning, attention, emotion
33
What are examples of malfunctions for dopamine?
oversupply: schizophrenia
undersupply: tremors, decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease
34
what is the function of the neurotransmitter serotonin?
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
35
what are examples of malfunction for serotonin?
undersupply linked to depression
- drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression
36
what is the function of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine?
helps control alertness and arousal
37
what is the function of the neurotransmitter GABA?
major inhibitory neurotransmitter
38
what is an example of malfunction of norepinephrine?
undersupply can suppress mood
39
what is an example of malfunction for GABA?
undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
40
what is the function of the neurotransmitter glutamate?
major excitatory neurotransmitter
- involved in memory
41
what is an example of malfunction of glutamate?
oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines and seizures
42
what is the function of the neurotransmitters endorphins?
influence the perception of pain or pleasure
explains good feelings of:
- runners high
- painkilling effects of acupuncture
-indifference to pain in severely injured people
43
what is an example of malfunction of endorphins?
oversupply with opiate drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply
44
what happens when the body's own neurotransmitter production is suppressed?
- feeling of "withdrawal"
- intense discomfort
45
what happens when we flood the brain with artificial neurotransmitters?
- brain's chemical balancing act is disrupted
- suppresses its own neurotransmitter production to maintain its chemical balance
46
what are agonist molecules?
increase a neurotransmitter's action
- increase production or release of neurotransmitters
- block reuptake of neurotransmitter in synapse
- some mimic neurons excitatory and inhibitory effects bc they are similar enough
47
what are antagonist molecules?
- decrease a neurotransmitter's action by blocked production or release
- some are similar enough to neurotransmitter it occupies their receptor site and block the effect, but doesn't stimulate receptor
48
what is Botulin?
antagonist poison that causes paralysis by blocking ACh release
49
what is Curare?
antagonist poison that occupies and blocks ACh receptor sites on muscles, paralyzing muscles
50
what does Morphine do?
agonist, mimics endorphin's actions
51
what are the two parts of the nervous system?
- central (brain and spinal cord)
- peripheral
52
what are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system?
- autonomic
- somatic
53
what is the autonomic nervous system?
controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands
54
what are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system?
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
55
what are the two parts of the somatic nervous system?
- sensory input
- motor output (controls skeletal muscles)
56
what is the peripheral nervous system responsible for?
gathering info
transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts
57
what are sensory neurons?
neurons that carry messages from body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the CNS for processing
- afferent
58
what are motor neurons?
- carry instructions from CNS outward to body's muscles and glands
- efferent
59
what are interneurons?
- neurons in CNS
- communicate internally and process info btwn sensory input and motor output
60
what is the somatic nervous system?
division of PNS that controls body's skeletal muscles
- enables voluntary control
61
what is the autonomic nervous system?
- division of PNS
- controls glands and muscles of internal organs
- self-regulating
62
what is the sympathetic nervous system?
arouses and expends energy
- accelerates heartbeat, raises BP, slows digestion, raises blood sugar
- makes you alert and ready for action
-fight or flight response
63
what is the parasympathetic nervous system?
- conserves energy
- calms body down
- rest and digest
64
what are neural networks?
when individual neurons cluster into work groups
65
what are reflexes?
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, sometimes before the brain receives and responds to the information due to the spinal cord's involvement
66
what do the parathyroids do?
help regulate the level of calcium in blood
67
what does the pituitary gland do?
- secretes many hormones
- master gland
- controlled by hypothalamus
- releases growth hormone
- release oxytocin
68
what does the hypothalamus do for the endocrine system?
brain region that controls the pituitary gland
69
what does the thyroid gland do?
affects metabolism
70
what does the pancreas do?
regulates level of sugar in blood
71
what do the adrenal glands do?
inner part helps trigger the fight or flight response
- release epinephrine and norepinephrine
72
what does fat tissue do?
blends and controls hormones that affect nutrition and infection
73
how are hormones different from neurotransmitters?
hormones are slow acting but long lasting
neurotransmitters are quick but don't last as long
74
what does oxytocin do?
- enables labor contractions
- milk flow while nursing
- orgasm
- promote social bonding
- strengthens relationships
- alerts us of threats to our group
75
what is cortisol?
stress hormone that increases blood sugar
- when triggered by hypothalamus, pituitary releases hormones that cause adrenal glands to flood body with cortisol
76
Why are psychologists concerned with human biology?
psychologists working from a biological perspective study the links between biological processes and psychological processes
- we are biopsychosocial systems
77
how is the brain "plastic"?
the human brain is designed to be flexible, can reorganize after damage and can build new pathways based on experience
- enables us to adapt to changing world
78
what is optogenetics?
the technique that allows neuroscientists to control the activity of individual neurons
79
what is an EEG?
electroencephalogram
- amplified readout of electric waves in the brain's neurons
- like studying a blender's motor by listening to its hum
- measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
80
what is magnetoencephalography?
MEG
- brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from brain's natural electrical activity
- speed and strength of magnetic fields enable researchers to understand how tasks influence brain activity
81
what is positron emission topography?
- technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while brain performs a given task
- PET scan tracks gamma rays released by radioactive glucose as task is performed
- "hot spots" show most active brain areas
82
what is magnetic resonance imaging?
- technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue
- shows brain anatomy
- person's head put in strong magnetic field, which aligns spinning atoms of brain molecules
- radio-wave pulse momentarily disorients atoms
- atoms emit signals providing detailed picture of soft tissues when they return to normal spin
83
what is functional magnetic resonance imaging?
- technique that reveals blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans and see where increased oxygen-laden blood flow goes
- shows brain function and structure
84
what is functional near-infrared spectroscopy?
fNIRS
- uses infrared light that shines on blood molecules to identify brain activity
85
what is diffusion spectrum imaging?
- type of MRI technology
- brain map showing neural centers
- shows how neural fibers transport water through different brain regions
86
what is the brainstem?
- brain's oldest and innermost region
- responsible for automatic survival functions
- crossover point, where most nerves to and from each side of brain connect with body's opposite side
- manages life-sustaining functions, freeing newer brain regions to think, talk, dream
87
what is the medulla?
- base of the brainstem
- controls heartbeat and breathing
88
what is the pons?
helps coordinate movement and controls sleep
89
what is the thalamus?
- brain's sensory control center
- located on top of brainstem
- directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla
- receives info from all senses except smell
- receives some of higher brain's replies, then directs it to medulla and to the cerebellum
90
what is the reticular formation?
nerve network that travels through brainstem into the thalamus
- filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal
relays info to other brain areas
- multitasking
- stimulating it produces feelings of awakeness and alertness
91
what is the cerebellum?
"little brain" at rear of brainstem
- processing sensory input
- coordinating movement output
- balance
- enabling nonverbal learning and memory
- has more than half of brain's neurons
- judges time
- discriminates textures and sounds
- controls emotions and social behaviours
- aids in vocab, reading, ability to store information
- coordinates voluntary movement w/ pons
92
what is the limbic system?
neural system including the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus
- associated with emotions and drives
93
what is the amygdala?
- enables aggression and fear
- arousal to threatening stimuli
- little amygdala, little fear
- when negative events energize amygdala, they become more memorable
- criminal behavior linked to amygdala dysfunction
94
what is the hypothalamus?
- directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, thermoregulation for homeostasis by tuning into blood chemistry
- helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
- linked to pleasurable emotion and reward
95
what is the hippocampus?
- helps process conscious memories like facts and events for storage
- forming new memories
96
what is the cerebral cortex?
- ultimate control and information processing center
- intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres
97
what is the corpus callosum?
axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
98
what happens to an organism's adaptability as we move up the ladder of animal life???
- cerebral cortex expands
- tight genetic controls relax
- organism's adaptability increases
99
why is the brain wrinkled?
for more surface area
100
what is the motor cortex?
a cerebral cortex area that controls voluntary movements
101
When you move your right hand and leg in opposite directions, why is it hard to do so?
both limbs are controlled by the same side of the brain, their opposed activities interfere with each other
102
when you move your right hand and left leg in opposite directions, why is it easy to do so?
opposite sides of the brain control the left and right limbs, so their reversed motion causes less interference
103
what is the somatosensory cortex?
cerebral cortex area that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
104
what is the relationship between the sensitivity of a body region and the area devoted to it in the somatosensory cortex?
the more sensitive a body region, the more are devoted to it in the somatosensory cortex
105
where is the visual cortex?
in the occipital lobes
- any visual info is going to occipital lobes
- if occipital lobes stimulated, flashes of color might appear in vision
- visual information travels from occipital lobes to other areas that specialize in different tasks like detecting emotions, identifying words, recognizing faces
106
why does the psychoactive drug LSD often produce vivid hallucinations?
- dramatically increases communication between visual cortex in occipital lobes and other brain regions
107
where is the auditory cortex?
in the temporal lobes
- most of auditory info travels from one ear to the auditory receiving area above the opposite ear
108
what is tinnitus?
the phantom ringing sound experienced that if heard on one ear, means activity in the temporal lobe on the other side
109
what are association areas?
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
- involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
110
does electrically probing association areas trigger observable responses?
No, association area functions cannot be neatly mapped but they do have unobservable activity
111
what is the prefrontal cortex?
forward part of the frontal lobes that enable judgement, planning, social interactions, and processing of new memories
- emotional control
- decision making
- moral judgments
- help steer us toward kindness and away from violence
112
how would people with damage to the prefrontal cortex act?
- would not be able to plan ahead
- would not remember
- would fail to process social interactions and new memories
- alters personality
- removes a person's inhibitions
113
what are association areas in the parietal lobes responsible for?
- mathematical and spatial reasoning
- stimulation of a parietal love produces feelings of wanting to move limbs without any actual movement
114
what is the association area under the right temporal lobe responsible for?
- face recognition
-
115
what is functional connectivity?
communication among distinct brain areas and neural networks
116
what happens when brain areas struggle to communicate with each other?
- people are at increased risk for a variety of mental disorders
117
why are association areas important?
- involved in higher mental functions like interpreting, integrating, acting on info processed in other areas
118
what can most brain damage effects be traced to?
1. neurons do not regenerate
- some brain functions seem preassigned to specific areas
119
what is constraint-induced therapy?
rewiring of brains and improve dexterity by constraining a function purposefully
120
what tasks does the right hemisphere focus on?
- perceptual, holistic tasks
121
what tasks does the left hemisphere focus on?
- math, arithmetic
- speech, language, verbal
- quick, literal interpretations of language
122
