Cha. 17 Industrial America: Corporations and Conflicts

Question 1

Gospel of Wealth

Answer 1

Andrew Carnegie argued that even though industrialization increased the gap between rich and poor, everyone’s standard of living rose.
“the poor enjoy what the rich could not before afford. What were the luxuries have become the necessaries of life.”

Question 2

Management revolution

Answer 2

Systems which Managers gradually invented to solve problems: They distinguished top executives from many responsible for day-to-day operations. They departmentalized operations by function– purchasing, machinery, freight, traffic, passenger traffic.

Question 3

Vertical integration

Answer 3

A model in which a company controlled all aspects of production from raw materials to finished goods.

Question 4

Swift and Co

Answer 4

Book: The processing system that enabled Swift and other large packers to save money through high volume and deskilled labor.

Case: in which the Supreme Court ruled to break up the meatpacking trust on the grounds that manufacturing could be interstate commerce because its products moved into the stream of commerce. This overturned their previous decision that manufacturing was only intrastate.

Question 5

Predatory pricing

Answer 5

A sales tactic which big packer slashed prices in certain markets to below production costs, driving independent distributors to the wall. With profits from its sales elsewhere, a large firm survive temporary losses in one locality until competitors went under.

Question 6

Titusville, Pennsylvania

Answer 6

A place that a clean-buring fuel for domestic heating and lighting–from crude oil, enormous oil deposits were discovered.

Question 7

John D. Rockefeller

Answer 7

King of petroleum石油. His firm–Standard Oil of Ohio was Cleveland’s leading refiner.

Question 8

Horizontal integration

Answer 8

A strategy which drives competitors to the brink of failure through predatory pricing, then invites them to merge their local companies.

Question 9

Trust

Answer 9

A new legal form which organized a small group of associates– the board of trustees– to hold stock from a groups of combined firms, managing them as a single entity实体.

Question 10

J.P. Morgan

Answer 10

Who created U.S. Steel, the nation’s first billion-dollar corporation by purchasing several steel companies in 1901, including Carnegie Steel.

Question 11

Research laboratories

Answer 11

Steelmakers invested in chemistry and materials science to make their products cheaper, better, and stronger.

Question 12

Chain stores/F.W. Woolworth

Answer 12

which soon stretched nationwide

Question 13

Department store/Macy’s

Answer 13

• which was pioneered in 1875 by John Wanamaker in Philadelphia.
• These megastores displaced small retail shops, tempting customers with large show windows and Christmas displays.
• They developed economies of scale that enabled them

Question 14

Mail order companies/Sears

Answer 14

They used money-back guarantees to coax wary customers to buy products they could not see or touch.

Question 15

Advertising

Answer 15

• The active shaping of consumer demand became in itself, a new enterprise.
• Rather than charging subscribers the cost of production, magazines began to cover their costs by selling ads.
• Cheaper subscriptions built a mass readership, which in turn attracted more advertiser.

Question 16

White-collar workers

Answer 16

People who wore white shirts with starched collars and held professional positions in corporations

Question 17

Middle managers (middle workers)

Answer 17

• People who directed the flow of goods, labor and information throughout the enterprise.
• They were key innovators, counterparts to the engineers in research laboratories who, in the same decades, worked to reduce costs and improv efficiency.

Question 18

Sales psychology

Answer 18

Walt Dill Scott published his Scott’s principles which included selling to customers based on their presumed “instinct of escape” and “instinct of combat”—were soon taught at Harvard Business School. Others also promised that a “scientific attitude” would “attract attention” and “create desire.”

Question 19

Female office workers

Answer 19

Since in a large corporation, secretarial work became a dead-end job, and employers began assigning it to women. For white working-class women, clerking and office work represented new opportunities. Clerking and secretarial work were clearer and better paid compare to domestic service and factory work.

Question 20

Telephone operators

Answer 20

The rise of the telephone is one of the new technologies provide additional opportunities for women. Thousands of young women found work as telephone operators. Like other women office workers, these switchboard operators enjoyed relatively high pay and comfortable working conditions, especially in the early years of the telephone industry, before operators’ work routines speeded up.

Question 21

Skilled workers

Answer 21

Before skilled workers retained considerable autonomy in many industries. Such workers abided遵守 by the stint定额工作量, a self-imposed limit on how much they would produce each day. However, the informal system of restricting output infuriated激怒 efficiency-minded engineers. A machinist promptly packed his tools, declaring that he had not “been brought up under such a system of slavery.”

Question 22

Deskilling

Answer 22

A new system of mechanized manufacturing that men lie Gustavus Swift had pioneered

Question 23

Mass production

Answer 23

A new system of mechanized manufacturing everything to be assembled from standardized parts, using machines that increasingly operated with little human oversight.

Question 24

Scientific management/Frederick W. Taylor

Answer 24

• A program of industrial efficiency through which managers sought to further reduce costs by the early twentieth century.
• Frederick W. Taylor, the inventor, recommended that employers eliminate all brain work from manual labor, hiring experts to develop rules for the shop floor.

Question 25

Mining dangers

Answer 25

Due to lack of regulatory laws and inspections, mining was 50 percent more dangerous in the United States than in Germany; between 1876 and 1925, an average of over 2,00 U.S. coal miners died each year from cave-ins and explosions

Question 26

Air and water pollution

Answer 26

• In the big cities, poor residents suffered from polluted air and the dumping倾销 of noxious有害的 by-products into the water supply.
• At the time, people were well aware of many these dangers, but workers had an even more urgent priority: work.

Question 27

Women and children in deskilled production

Answer 27

• As managers deskilled production, the ranks of factory workers came to include more and more women and children, who were almost always unskilled and low paid.
• Men often resented恨 women;s presence in factories, and male labor unions often worked to exclude women — especially wives, who they argued should remain in the home.
• In 1900, one of every five children under the age of sixteen worked outside the home.
• State law permitted children as young as twelve to labor with a family member, but turn-of-century investigator estimated that about 10,000 additional boys, at even younger ages, were illegally employed in the mines.

Question 28

African Americans in industry

Answer 28

• Corporations and industrial manufacturers widely discriminated against them on the basis of race, and such prejudice was hardly limited to the South.
• After the Civil War, African American women who moved to northern cities were largely barred from office and other new employment options; instead, they remained heavily concentrated in domestic service, with more than half employed as cooks or servants.

Question 29

Eastern and Southern European immigrants–Countries of origin

Answer 29

First in Germany and Scandinavia, then Austria-Hungary奥匈帝国, Russia, Italy, and Balkans巴尔干岛

Question 30

Eastern and Southern European immigrants–Reasons for emigrating

Answer 30

• Mass migration from Western Europe had started in the 1840s, when more than one million Irish fled a terrible famine饥荒.
• The idea that America as the land where you’d get rich

Question 31

Eastern and Southern European immigrants–Work performed in U.S.

Answer 31

• Some immigrants brought skills. Many Welshmen as experienced tin-plate makers; Germans came as machinists机器操作工人 and carpenter, Scandinavians as sailors.
• As poor farmers from Italy, Greece, and Eastern Europe arrived in the United States, heavy, low-paid labor become their domain.

Question 32

Ellis Island

Answer 32

The place which after 1892 European immigrants were routed through the enormous receiving station at New York.

Question 33

Chinese immigrants

Answer 33

• They first had arrive in the late 1840s during the California gold rush.
• They filled low-wage jobs.
• Compared with Europeans, newcomers from Asia faced even harsher treatment.

Question 34

California Workingman’s Party/Dennis Kearney

Answer 34

Dennis Kearney, the leader of the California Workingman’s Party, who referred to Asians as “almond-eyed lepers.”//杏眼的麻风病患者

Question 35

Chinese Exclusion Act

Answer 35

•The law which specifically barred禁止 Chinese laborers from entering the United States.
Each decade thereafter, •Congress renewed the law and tightened its provisions条款; it was not repealed until 1943.
•It created the legal foundations on which far-reaching exclusionary policies would be built in the 1920s and after.
•To enforce the law, Congress and the courts gave sweeping new powers to immigration officials, transforming the Chinese into American’s first illegal immigrants.
•Many Chinese men disguising themselves as Mexicans—who at that time could freely enter the United States— some perished in the desert as they tried to reach California.

Question 36

Paper sons

Answer 36

• Immigrants who relied on Chinese residents in the United States, who generated documents falsely claiming the newcomers as American-born children.
• Paper sons memorized pages of information about their supposed relatives and hometowns.

Question 37

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

Answer 37

• Protesting steep wage cuts amid在其中 the depression that had begun in 1873, thousands of railroad workers walked off the job.
• Pennsylvania’s governor sent state militia to break the strike, Pittsburgh crowds reacted by buying railroad property and overturning locomotives机车.
• For their roles in the strike, many railroad workers were fired and blacklist: railroad companies circulated their names on a “do not hire” list to prevent them from getting any work in the industry.
• In the aftermath后果 of the strike, the U.S. government created the Nation Guard, intended not to protect Americans against foreign invasion入侵 but to enforce oder at home

Question 38

Henry George, Progress and Poverty

Answer 38

• George warned that Americans had been too optimistic about the impact of railroads and manufacturing, which they hoped would— after an initial period or turmoil骚动 — bring prosperity to all
• He also believed that industrialization was driving a wedge through society, lifting the fortunes of professionals and the middle class but pushing the working class down by forcing them into deskilled, dangerous, and low-paid labor.

Question 39

National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry/Grange movement

Answer 39

• The most prominent rural protest group of the early postwar decades.
• Grange farmers sought to counter计算 the rising power of corporate middlemen through cooperation and mutual共同的 aid援助.

Question 40

Greenback-Labor Party

Answer 40

•During the 1870s depression, Grangers, labor advocates, and local workingmen’s parties forged a national political movement.
•In the South, they urged that every man’s vote be protected
Across the country, they advocated laws to regulate corporations and enforce an eight-hour workday to reduce long, grueling work hour.
•They also called for the federal government to print more greenback dollars and increase the amount of money in circulation.

Question 41

Producerism

Answer 41

The idea that Greenbacks, like many industrial labor leader, dismissed middlemen, bankers, lawyers, and investors as idlers游手好闲的人 who lived off the sweat of people who worked with their hands.

Question 42

Granger laws

Answer 42

A wave of economic regulatory actions which is helped trigger by Greenback pressure.

Question 43

The Knights of Labor

Answer 43

• The most important union of the late nineteenth century.
• They believed that ordinary people needed control over the enterprises企业 in which worked.
• They proposed to et up shops owned by employees, transforming America into what they called a cooperative commonwealth.
• They believed that only electoral选举的 action could bring about many of their goals, such as government regulation of corporations and laws that required employers to negotiate during strikes.
• They also advocated personal responsibility and self-discipline.

Question 44

Terence Powderly

Answer 44

• The leader of The Knights, who warned that the abuse of liquor robbed as many workers of their wages as did ruthless employers.
• He tried to avoid strikes, which he saw as costly and risky

Question 45

Anarchism

Answer 45

The revolutionary advocacy of a stateless society.

Question 46

Haymarket Square, 1886

Answer 46

• The place where local anarchists, many of them German immigrants, called a protest meeting on May 4, 1886
• When police tried to disperse the crowd there, someone threw a bomb that killed several policemen. officers responded with gunfire.

Question 47

Farmer’s Alliance

Answer 47

A new rural movement arose to take up many of the issues that Grangers and Greenbacker had earlier sought to address.

Question 48

Colored Farmers’ Alliance结盟

Answer 48

The movement which read across the plains sates and the South, becoming by the late 1880s the largest farmer-based movement in American history.

Question 49

Hatch Act

Answer 49

The law which provided federal funding for agricultural research and education, meeting farmers’s demands for government aid to agriculture.

Question 50

Interstate Commerce Act

Answer 50

• The act which counteracted a Supreme Court decision of the previous year, Wabash v. Illinois(1886), that had struck down states’ authority to regulate railroads.
• The act created the Interstate Commerce Commission(ICC), charged with investigating interstate shipping, forcing railroads to make their rates public, and suing in court when necessary to make companies reduce “unjust or unreasonable” rates.

Question 51

Closed shop

Answer 51

• In the 1870s, printers, ironworker, bricklayers, and other skilled workers organized nationwide trade union.
• Trade union sought a closed shop— with all jobs reserved for union members— that kept out lower-wage workers.

Question 52

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

Answer 52

• In the early 1889s, many trade unionists joined the Knights of Labor coalition. But t he aftermath of the Haymarket violence persuade them to leave and create the separate American Federation of Labor.
• It made up of relatively skilled and well-paid workers, was less interested in challenging the corporate order than in winning a larger share of its reward.

Question 53

Samuel Gompers

Answer 53

• The leader of AFL, a Dutch Jewish cigar maker whose family had emigrated to New York in 1863.
• He believed the Knights relied too much on electoral politics, where victories were likely to be limited, and he did not share their weeping critique of capitalism.