Chap 2

Question 1

an objective statement that reasonable observers agree is true. In psychology, _ are usually particular behaviors, or reliable patterns of behaviors, of persons or animals.

Answer 1

observation

Question 2

an idea, or a conceptual model, that is designed to explain existing observations and make predictions about new observations that might be discovered

Answer 2

theory

Question 3

a hypothesis.

Answer 3

Any prediction about new observations that is made from a theory

Question 4

_ lead to _, which lead to _ which are tested with _ which in turn lead to _ which sometimes leads to _

Answer 4

Observations

theories

hypotheses

experiments

new observations

new theories

Question 5

parsimony

Answer 5

the simpler the explanation is, the better it tends to be

Question 5

principle of parsimony:

Answer 5

when there are two or more explanations that are equally able to account for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is usually preferred

Question 6

A useful way to categorize the various research strategies used by psychologists is to think of them as varying along the following three dimensions (Hendricks et al., 1990):

1. The _, of which there are three subtypes: _
2. The _, of which there are two basic types: _
3. The _, of which there are two types: _

Answer 6

–> research design

experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive studies.

–> setting in which the study is conducted

field and laboratory

–>data-collection method

self-report and observation.

Question 7

An experiment is _

Answer 7

a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates (varies) one or more independent variables and looks for changes in one or more dependent variables, while keeping all other variables constant.

Question 8

A variable is _. It might be a _, such as temperature or amount of noise; or it might be a _, such as a score on a test.

Answer 8

anything that can change or assume different values

condition of the environment

measure of behavior

Question 9

the independent variable

Answer 9

the variable that is hypothesized to cause some effect on another variable

Question 10

the dependent variable

Answer 10

the variable that is hypothesized to be affected

Question 11

The aim of any experiment is to learn whether and how the _ is affected by (depends on) the _.

Answer 11

dependent variable

independent variable

Question 12

The people or animals that are studied in any research study are referred to as the _

Answer 12

subjects of the study (or participants)

Question 13

within-subject experiments:

Answer 13

each subject is tested in each of the different conditions of the independent variable

Question 14

between-groups experiments:

Answer 14

there is a separate group of subjects for each different condition of the independent variable.

Question 15

why do we often use random assignment in between-group experiments

Answer 15

to ensure that the subjects are not assigned in a way that could bias the results

Question 16

when an experiment is not practical, ethical instead you can do a

Answer 16

correlational study

Question 17

A correlational study can be defined as :

Answer 17

a study in which the researcher does not manipulate any variable, but observes or measures two or more already existing dependent variables to find relationships between them.

Question 18

what is the major limitation of a correlational study?

Answer 18

do not tell us in any direct way whether change in one variable is the cause of change in another

Question 19

_ ‘s study of the relationship between parents’ disciplinary styles and children’s behavioral development.

Answer 19

Diana Baumrind’s (1971)

Question 20

descriptive study.

Answer 20

when research aims to describe the behavior of an individual or set of individuals without assessing relationships between different variables.

Question 21

A laboratory study is

Answer 21

any research study in which the subjects are brought to a specially designated area that has been set up to facilitate the researcher’s collection of data or control over environmental conditions.

Question 22

a field study is

Answer 22

any research study conducted in a setting where the researcher does not have control over the subjects’ experiences.

Question 23

Self-report methods are_

and how it is done:

Answer 23

procedures in which people are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or mental state in some way.

written questionnaire
essay questions
interview

Question 24

introspection:

Answer 24

one form of self report method the personal observations of one’s thoughts, perceptions, and feelings.

Question 25

Observational methods include_ and what are the 2 subcategories?

Answer 25

all procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of interest rather than relying on subjects’ self-reports. tests naturalistic observation

Question 26

example of who did a naturalistic observation and tell us a little about it.

Answer 26

Laura Berk. first and third grade children observed while doing math problems and see who was muttering while doing them and who is better in solving them in general

Question 27

Changes in subjects’ behavior as a result of knowing they are being watched is called the:

Answer 27

Hawthorne effect

Question 28

Hawthorne effect

Answer 28

Changes in subjects’ behavior as a result of knowing they are being watched

Question 29

technique to minimize the Hawthorne effect:

Answer 29

phenomenon of habituation

Question 30

descriptive statistics: say what exactly

Answer 30

include all numerical methods used to summarize sets of data mean, median, and a measure of variability

Question 31

inferential statistics:

Answer 31

to help researchers decide how confident they can be in judging whether the results observed are due to chance

Question 32

mean is simply the

Answer 32

arithmetic average

Question 33

median is the

Answer 33

center score (score here is an example), that is the score representing the 50th percentile.

Question 34

Variability refers to the _ A common measure of variability is the_

Answer 34

degree to which the numbers in the set differ from one another and from their mean standard deviation

Question 35

range of correlation coefficient

Answer 35

from -1.00 to +1.00

Question 36

The calculation of a p value takes into account:

Answer 36

The size of the observed effect The number of individual subjects or observations in the study The variability of the data within each group

Question 37

A _ effect is less likely to be caused just by chance than is a _ one.

Answer 37

large small

Question 38

Don’t confuse statistical significance with _

Answer 38

practical significance

Question 39

Bias, as a technical term, refers to

Answer 39

nonrandom (directed) effects caused by some factor or factors extraneous to the research hypothesis.

Question 40

which is the worst between bias, error, and bias & error?

Answer 40

bias & error, then bias, then error

Question 41

error only reduces the chance that researchers will find _

Answer 41

statistically significant results

Question 42

biased sample:

Answer 42

when it is not representative of the larger population

Question 43

A classic example of the effect of a biased sample in descriptive research is

Answer 43

the Literary Digest’s poll of U.S. voters in 1936. Alf Landon would beat Franklin D. Roosevelt in the presidential election those who could afford magazine subscription are more for Landon

Question 44

problem research scientists encounter in terms of biased samples:

Answer 44

Because most psychological research is conducted with people from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies

Question 45

reliability

Answer 45

a measure is reliable if the same results are obtained after repeating the measure. reliability= replicability

Question 46

Because it is a source of error, low reliability decreases the chance of finding _ in a research study.

Answer 46

statistical significance

Question 47

Interobserver reliability means that

Answer 47

when one person observes a certain behavior, another person sees it too. To make sure everyone agrees on what behavior they're looking at, it's important to clearly describe it beforehand. This is done using an OPERATIONAL DEFINITION, which clearly explains how to identify and measure the behavior. For example, to study aggression, you might define it as actions like hitting, kicking, or pushing on the playground, or use a questionnaire that measures aggressive behaviors.

Question 48

Validity is an even more critical issue than reliability because lack of validity can be _

Answer 48

a source of bias.

Question 49

validity

Answer 49

a measure is valid if it actually measures what it's supposed to measure

Question 50

A more certain way to gauge (ajuster) the validity of a measurement procedure is to __. In that case, the more direct index is called the __, and the validity is called __.

Answer 50

correlate its scores with another, more direct index of the characteristic that we wish to measure or predict criterion criterion validity

Question 51

Criterion validity is

Answer 51

checking how well one measurement matches up with a more direct or already validated measurement of what you want to study. If the scores from the new measurement closely correlate with the scores from the more direct measurement (the criterion), then the new measurement is considered valid.

Question 52

observer-expectancy effects: give example

Answer 52

researchers inevitably have wishes and expectations that can affect how they behave and what they observe when recording data. facilitated communication for people with autism

Question 53

Any experiment in which both the observer and the subjects are kept blind in this way is called a _

Answer 53

double-blind experiment.

Question 54

why the replication of a study is hardly replicable?

Answer 54

- statistical significance: effect significant if there's a 95% probability it's correct, accepting a 5% chance of error. some studies are chance so they cannot be replicable - Context Effects: differences in experiment setup or participant demographics - Scientific Conservatism: Science is cautious about new findings, especially those deviating significantly from established knowledge. Novel findings undergo rigorous testing and are slowly accepted. Textbooks are particularly conservative, preferring established findings over new, unverified ones.

Question 55

Invalid measures are sources of _.

Answer 55

bias

Question 56

Additional ethical considerations revolve around three interrelated issues:

Answer 56

- Theperson’srighttoprivacy - Thepossibilityofdiscomfortorharm - Theuseofdeception

Question 57

the United States, Canada, and many other countries have laws that require publicly funded research institutions to establish ethics review panels, commonly called

Answer 57

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Question 58

Oskar Pfungst is best known for studying Clever Hans. His occupation was as a:

Answer 58

psychologist

Question 59

When conducting research with statistical measures, the three important components in testing for statistical significance are:

Answer 59

effect size, sample size, and amount of variability.

Question 60

Which number would be considered the weakest correlation coefficient?

Answer 60

0

Question 61

A measure is considered _____ when it predicts what it is intended to predict.

Answer 61

valid

Question 62

Which researcher is most known for his research focused on learning with rats and pigeons?

Answer 62

B.F. Skinner

Question 63

In most publicly funded institutions ethics review panels are utilized and commonly referred to as:

Answer 63

Institutional Review Boards

Question 64

The typical cycle of science follows which sequence?

Answer 64

Observation, theory, hypothesis, experiment

Question 65

_____ refers to the degree to which the numbers in the set differ from one another and from the mean.

Answer 65

variability

Question 66

Which individual initially stated that autistic individuals could type meaningful statements with one finger on a keyboard?

Answer 66

Rosemary Crossley