Chap1 Flashcards
(25 cards)
structuralism
Was first studied by Wundt and his collaborators.
They focused on the basic elements or structures of mental processes. Introspection was the method used to study these mental structures. Individuals were asked to think about what was occurring mentally as events were taking place.
Functionalism
William James’ approach to mental processes, was concerned with the
functions and purposes of the mind in individuals’ adaptation to the environment.
Functionalism fit well with another intellectual development, Charles Darwin’s principle of natural selection, an evolutionary process in which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and, importantly, produce offspring.
Different between structuralism and functionalists
While Structuralists were looking inside the mind, the Functionalists were focusing on how humans interacted with the outside world.
 The Biological Approach
The biological approach emphasizes the study of the body, especially the brain and the nervous system. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system. It emphasizes that the brain and nervous
system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
The Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinante.
John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner were the first behaviorists. Behaviorism dominated psychological research during the first half of the
twentieth century.
The Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences.
Sigmund Freud, the
founder of the psychodynamic approach, theorized that early interactions with parents shape
an individual’s personality. His theory was also the basis for the therapeutic technique that he called psychoanalysis, which involves an analyst unlocking a person’s unconscious conflicts
by talking with the individual about his or her childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and feelings.
The Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny. Humanistic psychologists stress that people
have the ability to control their lives and are not simply controlled by the environment.
The Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach emphasizes the mental processes involved directing attention, perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem solving.
The Evolutionary Approach
The evolutionary approach uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and the concept of the survival of the fittest as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.
The Sociocultural Approach
The sociocultural approach emphasizes the ways in which the social and cultural
environments influence behavior.
The sociocultural approach often includes cross-culturul research, meaning compares individuals in various cultures to see how they differ on important psychological attributes. Cross-cultural research is important for testing the assumption that findings for
one culture also generalize to other cultural contexts, and as such it allows psychologists to test for the possibility that some characteristics are universal.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is about describing some phenomenon. Research allows the researcher to develop a sense for something but does not answer questions of causality. Descriptive
research methods include observation, surveys and interviews, and case studies
Observation
For observations to be effective, they must be systematic. Researchers must know what they are looking for, who they are observing, where and when observations will take place, and how observations will be made.
Surveys and Interviews
One method to gain information about people is to interview them directly. When information needs to be taken from a large group of people, a survey or questionnaire can be used. A survey consists of questions about a person’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a topic. Surveys and interviews can be problematic, because sometimes participants will answer the questions in a way they believe is socially acceptable instead of how they really feel. Survey construction can also be problematic due to unclear language.
Case Studies
A case study (also known as a case history) is conducted when a researcher takes an in-depth look at a single individual. A case study is usually conducted by a clinical psychologist when the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated in
other individuals.
The Value of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research allows researchers to get a sense of something but cannot answer questions about how and why things are the way they are. Descriptive findings provide a foundation for researchers to further examine a topic or subject in different cultural settings.
Correlational research
Correlational research is conducted when studies are concerned with identifying the relationships between two or more variables so it can be understood how the variables
change together. In a correlational study the variables are measured by the researcher to see how they relate. The strength of the relationship between two variables is expressed as a correlational coefficient, represented as a lowercase r.
The numeric value of a correlation coefficient falls between -1.00 and +1.00. where the number determines the strength of the relationship between the variables and the - or + sign
determines the direction of the relationship between the variables. A positive correlation occurs when the variables move in the same direction, so that if one variable increases the other variable also increases, and if one variable decreases the other variable decreases as well. A negative correlation occurs when the variables move in opposite directions, so that ifone variable increases the other variable decreases, and vice versa.
Experimental Research
To determine a causal relationship, experimental methods must be used. In an experiment the researcher manipulates one of the variables to see if it influences the behavior in question. If the behavior changes when one of the variables is manipulated, then the manipulated variable is considered to have caused the behavior to change. Researchers use random assignment by dividing a study’s participants randomly into two different groups by chance. Of course, random assignment does not always work. To improve the effectiveness of random assignment the researcher should start with a large pool of subjects.
Some Cautions About Experimental Research
Validity, experimenter bias, participant bias, and the placebo effect are issues to be considered in experimental research.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence.Scientists are critical thinkers. They question and test what others consider factual. They
accept nothing at face value.
Curiosity
Scientists are curious. A scientist wants to know why thingsin the world are the way they are and how they became that way. Science is concerned
with asking questions.
Skeptical
Scientists are skeptical. They ask questions about things that other
people take for granted. Psychological research often turns up the unexpected in human behavior. Such results are called counterintuitive because they contradict our intuitive
impressions of how the world works.
objectivity
Scientists apply objectivity in conducting research.They try to see things as they really are, not just as the observer would like them to be.To gather objective evidence, they rely on empirical methods.
What is empirical method
The empirical method is
gaining knowledge through observation, collecting evidence, and logical reasoning.
