Chapter 1 Flashcards
(145 cards)
1
Q
Gross anatomy
A
study of the larger structures of the body (visible without magnification)
2
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microscopic anatomy
A
study of structure that can only be observed with microscope or magnification device
3
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cytology
A
study of cells
4
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histology
A
study of tissues
5
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regional anatomy
A
study of the interrelationships of all structures in a specific body region (e.g.: the abdomen)
6
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systemic anatomy
A
study of structures that make up a body system
7
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physiology
A
study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and how those structures work together to support life;
derived from Greek for “relationship to nature”
8
Q
homeostasis
A
steady state of internal conditions maintained by living things
9
Q
cell
A
smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism
10
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tissue
A
many similar cells working together to perform a specific function
11
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organ
A
anatomically distinct structure of the body, composed of two or more tissue types
12
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organ system
A
group of organs working together to perform major functions/meet physiological needs
13
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organism
A
a living being that has cellular structure and can independently perform all physiologic fxns necessary for life
14
Q
body’s largest organ system
A
integumentary system
15
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anabolism
A
process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex substances
*uses energy
16
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catabolism
A
process by which larger, complex substances are broken down into smaller, simple molecules
*releases energy
17
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metabolism
A
sum of all chemical reactions in a living system
18
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responsiveness
A
ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environments
19
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development
A
all of the changes the body goes through during life
20
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differentiation
A
unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and fxn to perform tasks
21
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growth
A
increase in body size
22
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reproduction
A
formation of a new organism from parent organisms
23
Q
nutrient
A
substance in food or beverage that is essential to survival
*water
*energy-yielding nutrients
*micronutrients (vitamins and minerals)
24
Q
pressure
A
force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance
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set point
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
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normal range
restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable
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negative feedback
mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point
* most common type of homeostatic mechanism
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3 main components of homeostatic mechanisms
sensor/receptor, control center, effector
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sensor
AKA receptor
*component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value and reports findings to control center
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control center
compares value found by sensor to normal range
--if too much deviation, an effector is activated
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effector
component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse situation and return value to normal range
32
What 5 environmental factors does life require?
*water
*food
*oxygen
*heat
*pressure
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why do organisms require heat? (3)
-form of energy
-must maintain body temperature
-partly controls rate of metabolic rxns
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why do living organisms require pressure?
-atmospheric pressure to breathe
-hydrostatic pressure forces blood to flow through vessels
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negative feedback
*most common type of homeostatic mechanism
*called negative bc the response to the deviation from set point moves the variable in the opposite direction
36
positive feedback
uncommon feedback mechanism in the body
*change/deviation is intensified instead of reversed
*short-lived
*produce unstable conditions that eventually lead to homeostasis
*ex: uterine contractions during birth
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two main portions of the human body
axial: head, neck, and trunk
appendicular: upper and lower limbs
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major body cavities (axial body)
*cranial cavity: houses brain
*vertebral canal (spinal cavity): spinal cord
*thoracic cavity: lungs and thoracic viscera
*abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic viscera
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diaphragm
muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
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mediastinum
region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland
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abdominal cavity
extends from diaphragm to top of pelvis and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
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pelvic cavity
enclosed in pelvic bones and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs
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small cavities of the head
*oral
*nasal
*orbital
*middle ear
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serous membranes
*secrete serous fluid (slippery to prevent friction between layers
*function like a balloon buffer
*2 layers
-visceral layer (inner layer that covers the organ)
-parietal layer (outer layer, lines wall of cavity)
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How many organ systems are there?
11
46
integumentary system
*body covering, protection, body temp regulation, sensory reception, production of vitamin d
*skin, hair, nails
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skeletal system
*support and mvmt, framework, protection, attachment sites, storage or inorganic salts, production of blood cells
*bones, cartilage, joints)
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muscular system
*support and mvmt, main source of body heat and posture
*skeleton muscles and tendons
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nervous system
*integration and coordination of organ function through nerve impulses and neurotransmitters; detect and process sensory information and activate bodily responses
*brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
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endocrine system
*secretes hormones and regulates bodily processes
*pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes and ovaries
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cardiovascular system
*transportation of gases (O), nutrients, blood cells, hormones, wastes; equalizes temperature in the body
*heart and blood vessels)
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lymphatic system
*transportation of fluids from tissue spaces to blood, carries fats from digestive system to blood, defends body against infection (white blood cells)
*thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels
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digestive system
processes food for use by the body and removes waste from undigested food
*stomach, liver, gall bladder, large and small intestine
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respiratory system
*moves air in and out of body, exchanges gases (O2 and CO2) between blood and air, absorbs O2
*nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, bronchii, trachea, lungs
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urinary system
*controls water balance in the body and removes wastes from blood and excretes them, produces urine and excretes it
*kidneys, ureter, urethra and urinary bladder
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reproductive system
*produce and transport sex cells, produce hormones, produce new organisms; female also provides space for fetal development and childbirth, produces milk
*male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, penis
*female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris
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anatomical position
standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at sides, palms facing forward
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terms of relative position
*superior (above)/ inferior (below)
*medial (toward the midline)/ lateral (away from midline)
*bilateral (paired structures; on both sides)
*proximal (close to point of attachment to trunk)/ distal (farther from point of attachment to trunk)
*superficial (close to body surface)/ deep (more internal)
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sagittal section
longitudinal cut that divides body into left and right portions
mid-sagittal/median section: divides body into equal left and right portions
parasagittal section: sagittal section lateral to midline, divides body into unequal left and right portions
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transverse (horizontal) section
divides body into superior and inferior portions
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frontal section
longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior and posterior portions
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sections of cylindrical organs
*cross section : a cut across the structure
*oblique section: an angular cut
*longitudinal section: lengthwise cut
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prone
lying face down
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supine
lying face up
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frontal plane
divides body/part into anterior and posterior sections
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sagittal plane
divides body/part into left and right sections
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transverse plane
divides body/part into top and bottom sections
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pleura
serous membrane surrounding the pleural (lung) cavity
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pericardium
serous membrane that encloses
the pericardial cavity; the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart.
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peritoneum
serous membrane that
encloses the peritoneal cavity; the peritoneal cavity surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity.
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X-ray
form of high energy electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength capable of penetrating solids and ionizing gases
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Computed tomography (CT)
noninvasive imaging technique that
uses computers to analyze several cross-sectional X-rays in order to reveal minute details about structures in the
body
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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a noninvasive medical imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio frequency
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
medical imaging technique involving the use of radiopharmaceuticals, substances that emit radiation, to illustrate physiologic activity—including nutrient metabolism and blood flow—of the
organ or organs being targeted
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Ultrasonography
imaging technique that uses the transmission of high-frequency sound waves into the body
to generate an echo signal that is converted by a computer into a real-time image of anatomy and physiology
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Epithelial Tissue
-covers internal and external surfaces throughout body
-forms most glands
-functions: protection, absorption, filtration, secretion
-cells fit closely to form sheets
-free APICAL surface exposed to body's exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ
-if well nourished, cells regenerate easily
-basal surface rests on basement membrane (secreted by epithelial cells and connective cells deep to epithelium)
-AVASCULAR, dependent on diffusion from capillaries in underlying connective tissue
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The major functions of epithelia
1. PROTECTING UNDERLYING STRUCTURES.
2. ACTING AS A BARRIER.
3. PERMITTING THE PASSAGE OF SUBSTANCES.
4. SECRETING SUBSTANCES
5. ABSORBING SUBSTANCES.
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Layers of Epithelia
simple: one layer of cells
stratifies: multiple layers of cells
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shapes of epithelia
Squamous cells are flattened
like fish scales.
Cuboidal cells are cube shaped
like dice.
Columnar cells are shaped like
columns.
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simple squamous tissue
This type of epithelium usually
forms membranes where
filtration or exchange of
substances by rapid diffusion
occurs.
LOCATION: Lining of blood
vessels and the heart, lymphatic
vessels, alveoli of the lungs,
portions of the kidney tubules,
lining of serous membranes of
body cavities (pleural,
pericardial, peritoneal), walls of capillaries
Simple squamous epithelium also
forms serous membranes.
81
Simple Cuboidal
: Common in
glands and their
associated small tubes
called ducts. Can also be
found in kidney tubules,
choroid plexuses of the
brain, lining of terminal
bronchioles of the lungs,
and surfaces of the
ovaries
82
simple columnar tissue
: the Goblet
cells (produce ubricating
mucus), the digestive
tract from the stomach
to the anus
Epithelial membranes
that line body cavities
open to the body
exterior are called
mucous membranes.
83
Pseudostratified Columnar tissue
Single layer of cells;
cells are tall and thin
and some reach the
surface while others do
not.
LOCATION: Lining of
nasal cavity, nasal
sinuses, auditory canal,
trachea, and bronchus.
Often has cilia.
84
stratified squamous tissue
Several layers of cells
that are cuboidal
Protects against
abrasion, forms
keratinized (dry)
nonkeratinized (moist).
Keratinized stratified
epithelium, the
cytoplasm of cells at the
surface is replaced by a
protein called keratin,
and the cells are dead (denucleated)
LOCATION: Keratinized
—outer layer of the skin;
nonkeratinized—mouth,
throat, larynx,
esophagus, anus,
vagina, inferior urethra,
and corneas
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Transitional tissue
Appears cuboidal
when not stretch and
squamous when the
organ/tube is
stretched with fluid,
LOCATION: Lining of
the bladder, ureter,
and superior urethra.
86
Extracellular Matrix Components
1. Protein fibers (elastin, collagen, reticular fibers)
2. Ground Substance
3. Fluid
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types of protein fibers
COLLAGEN FIBERS are a glue-producing fibers, which
resemble microscopic ropes, are
flexible but resist stretching.
RETICULAR FIBERS are very
fine, short collagen fibers that
branch to form a supporting
network.
ELASTIC FIBERS are able to
recoil themselves after being
stretched
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connective tissue
-bind structures together,
form a framework and support
for organs and the body as a
whole, store fat, transport
substances, protect against
disease, and help repair tissue
damage.
-It is characterized by an
abundance of intercellular
matrix with relatively few
cells.
-Able to reproduce but not as
rapidly as epithelial cells.
-Most connective tissues have a
good blood supply but some do
not.
- also contains immune cells such as macrophages and mast cells
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what is ground substance?
Ground substance is the shapeless
background against which cells and
collagen fibers can be seen when using a light microscope
90
connective tissue cell naming
Connective tissue cells are named
according to their functions.
Cells whose names contain the suffix -blast (germ) produce the matrix; cells ending in -cyte (cell) maintain it; and cells ending in -clast (break) break it down for remodeling
91
macrophages vs. mast cells
macrophages- able to move around; ingest foreign substances
mast cells- stay in place; release histamine
92
which connective tissues are not well vascularized?
tendons and ligaments have poor blood supply, cartilage is avascular
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functions of connective tissue
Enclosing and separating other tissues
connecting tissues to one another
supporting and moving parts of the body
storing compounds
cushioning and insulating
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Connective Tissue Proper
1.Loose Connective Tissue
(Fibers is lesser than ground
substances)
Aerolar
Adipose
Reticular
2. Dense Connective Tissue
(Fibers is greater than ground
substances)
Dense regular collagenous
Dense regular elastic
95
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
1. Cartilage(semi-solid matrix)
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic
2.Bone(solid matrix)
Spongy
Compact
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Fluid Connective Tissue
1. Blood
2. Hematopoietic tissue- red marrow, yellow marrow
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Areolar Connective Tissue
(Loose)
-has extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers
-"loose packing" material of most organs and other tissues
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adipose tissue
(loose connective)
-Contain large amounts of lipid
for energy storage.
-Pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal
insulator.
LOCATION: predominantly in
subcutaneous areas,
mesenteries, mammary glands
99
reticular connective tissue
(loose connective)
Forms the stroma (bed/
mattress) of lymphatic tissues
LOCATION: spleen, lymph
nodes, bone marrow, and liver
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dense regular collagenous tissue
Composed of collagen tissues
that are closely arranged to
one another.
LOCATION: tendons, ligament,
dermis of the skin, and outer
layer of many blood vessels
Withstand great pulling forces
due to great tensile strength
and stretch resistance
101
dense regular elastic tissue
Capable of stretching and
recoiling.
LOCATION: blood vessel walls,
vocal cords, ligaments between
the vertebrae
102
hyaline cartilage
Covers the ends of bones where
they come together to form
joints.
LOCATION: Cartilage rings in
the trachea, costal cartilage
Forms smooth, resilient
surfaces that can withstand
repeated compression
103
fibrocartilage
In addition to withstanding
compression, it is able to resist
pulling or tearing forces.
LOCATION: Disk between the
vertebra, knees, and
temporomandibular joints.
Forms smooth, resilient
surfaces that can withstand
repeated compression
104
elastic cartilage
Elastic cartilage is able to
recoil to its original shape
when bent.
LOCATION: External ear,
epiglottis, and auditory tube
Forms smooth, resilient
surfaces that can withstand
repeated compression
105
bone as connective tissue
Composed of osteocytes sitting
in cavities called lacunae.
These pits are surrounded by
layers of a very hard matrix
that contains calcium salts in
addition to large numbers of
collagen fibers.
Because of its rocklike
hardness, bone has an
exceptional ability to protect
and support other body organs
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BLOOD & HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUE
(RED&YELLOW MARROW)
Blood is unique because the
matrix is liquid, enabling blood
cells to move through blood
vessels
107
muscular tisse
main characteristic is its ability to contract, making movement possible
1. skeletal muscle
2. cardiac muscle
3. smooth muscle
108
SKELETAL
MUSCLE
Attaches to the skeleton and
enables the body to move.
Skeletal muscle cells tend to be
long and cylindrical, with
several nuclei per cell
Described as voluntary.
Has protein bands which
causes it to be striated.
109
cardiac muscle
It is the muscle of the heart.
Intercalated (connected) to one
another.
Under involuntary control.
Cylindrical in shape but
shorter than skeletal muscle
cells.
Also has striations with one
nucleus per cell.
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smooth muscle
Forms the walls of hollow
organs and also found in skin
and the eyes.
Smooth muscle cells are
tapered at each end, have a
single nucleus, and are not
striated.
Controlled involuntarily
111
nervous tissue
Found in the brain, spinal cord, and
ganglia.
Irritability and conductivity are their two major functional characteristics.
Consists of neurons and support cells.
The neuron or nerve cell, is responsible for receiving and conducting action potentials
or nerve impulses
112
cells of nervous tissue
Neuron -composed of
three parts: cell body,
dendrites, and axon.
Cell body contains the
nucleus and is the site of
general cell functions.
Dendrites and axons are
both nerve cell processes
(extensions).
Dendrites usually
receive stimuli.
Action potentials usually
originate at the base of
an axon.
Neuroglia-
support cells of the
nervous system; they
nourish, protect, and
insulate the neuron
113
MUCOUS MEMBRANE
Mucous membranes consist of
various kinds of epithelium
resting on a thick layer of loose
connective tissue. They line
cavities that open to the
outside of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts
114
serous membrane
Serous membranes consist of
simple squamous epithelium
resting on a delicate layer of
loose connective tissue. Serous
membranes line the trunk
cavities and cover the organs
within cavities
115
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
made up of only connective
tissue. They line the inside of
joint cavities (the space where
bones come together within a
movable joint)
116
INFLAMMATION
Inflammation (flamma, flame) occurs when tissues are damaged.
For example, when viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper respiratory
tract, inflammation and the symptoms of the common cold are
produced. Inflammation can also result from the immediate and painful traumas.
Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms, foreign materials, and damaged cells so that tissue repair can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of function.
117
tissue repair
substitution of viable cells for dead cells by regeneration or fibrosis.
In regeneration, stem cells, which can divide throughout life, and other dividing cells regenerate new cells of the same type as those that were destroyed.
In fibrosis, the
destroyed cells are replaced by different cell types, which causes scar formation.
Tissue repair involves clot formation, inflammation, the formation of granulation tissue,
and the regeneration or fibrosis of tissues. In severe wounds, wound contracture can
occur.
118
intercellular junctions
1. Tight junctions- fuse cell membranes (stitch)
2. desmosomes- spot welds
3. gap junction- tubular channels for exchange of substances
119
identifying columnar epithelium vs pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Simple columnar - single layer, nuclei at same level, near basement membrane
pseudostratified- nuclei at two or more levels, cells vary in shape but all reach basement membrane
120
what is unique about the outer layer of skin?
cells are keratinized. they have died, flattened into squamous shape, no longer have nuclei
121
stratified columnar epithelium
several layers of cells with a top layer of elongated cells, cuboidal in deeper layers
122
transitional epithelium
many layers of varying shapes, changes shape and appearance with increased tension
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glandular epithelium
composed of cells that produce and secrete substances into ducts or body fluids
1. endocrine- secretes into tissue, fluid, or blood
2. exocrine-secretes into ducts that open onto a surface
124
types of exocrine glands
exocrine-secretes into ducts that open onto a surface
Unicellular: Composed of one cell, such as a goblet cell (secretes mucus).
Multicellular: Composed of many cells; can be simple or compound; examples: sweat and salivary glands
125
structural types of exocrine glands
Simple: duct does not branch
Compound: duct branches before it reaches secretory portion
Tubular: consist of epithelial-lined tubes
Alveolar: terminal portions form sac-like dilations
126
types of glandular secretions
Merocrine glands: Secrete fluid products by exocytosis; salivary and sweat glands, pancreas
Apocrine glands: Lose small part of cell during secretion; mammary and ceruminous glands (ear wax)
Holocrine glands: Release entire cells filled with product; sebaceous glands
127
Merocrine glands
Secrete fluid products by exocytosis; salivary and sweat glands, pancreas
128
apocrine gland
Lose small part of cell during secretion; mammary and ceruminous glands (ear wax)
129
holocrine
Release entire cells filled with product; sebaceous glands
130
what is the most abundant tissue type by weight?
connective tissue
131
fibroblast
found in connective tissue
Most common fixed cell
Large star-shaped cell
Secrete fibers into extracellular matrix
132
macrophages
Usually attached to fibers, but can detach and wander
Conduct phagocytosis
Defend against infection
133
mast cells
Large cells, widely distributed
Release heparin to prevent blood clotting
Release histamine, which causes inflammatory response
134
collagen fibers
threads of collagen, flexible, tensile strength
ligaments and tendons
135
elastic fibers
made of elastin, branching
can stretch and return to shape
not as strong as collagen
found in vocal cords, respiratory air passages
136
reticular fibers
thin, branching fibers of collagen
found in spleen, liver
support networks
137
areolar tissue
forms thin, delicate membranes
cells are mainly fibroblasts in gel like ground substance
collagen and elastin fibers
138
adipose tissue
stores fat, push nuclei to one side, crowd out other cell types, cushion and insulate
139
where is dense regular connective tissue found?
tendons, ligaments, dermis
140
cartilage
-rigid
-support, framework, attachment
-models for developing bone
-chondrocytes (cartilage cells) in lacunae (chambers) surrounded by matrix
- avascular, slow healing
-covered by perichondrium (connective tissue) which provides some nutrients to cartilage
141
hyaline cartilage
-most common type
-ends of bones in joints, nose, respiratory passages, embryonic skeleton, costal cartilage and trachea
142
elastic cartilage
flexible due to elastic fibers
external ear, larynx, epiglottis
143
fibrocartilage
very tough, due to lots of collagen
intervertebral discs, menisci, pelvic girdle
144
bone (osseus tissue)
solid matrix composed of mineral (Ca) salts and collagen
produces blood cells
stores and releases Ca, P
145
