Chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
how ling has psychology as we know it been around
A
psychology as we know it today is a relatively recent field that spans less than 150 years
2
Q
Prior to the mid-19th century, much of what we would now understand as psychology was known as what
A
philosophy, theology, and anatomy
3
Q
what does the word psychology come from
A
comes from these early traditions and has its roots in Greek, literally meaning “the study of the psyche, or soul”
4
Q
what is the modern definition of psychology
A
define it as the scientific study of both behaviour and mind
5
Q
Much of the initial thought related to psychology was done in what
A
philosophy, known as the philosophy of mind
6
Q
who were some of the first recorded formal thinkers on the topic (philosophy)
A
Greek philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle
7
Q
what did Aristotle’s De Anima (“On the Soul,” or Peri Psyches in the original Greek) considers topics such as
A
the nature of thought, sensation, and imagination, for example
8
Q
who introduced the term tabula rasa
A
aristotle
9
Q
what does tabula rasa mean
A
“blank slate” to describe the mind, considering it a place of potential for experience to write upon.
10
Q
Psychology is often considered to be a union of what two fields?
A
Physiology and philosophy
11
Q
Aristotle believed the mind was like a wax board upon which our experiences are written. What is the term for this idea?
A
Tabula rasa
12
Q
what is the definition of psychology as a whole
A
the scientific study of both behaviour and mind
13
Q
is psychology a science
A
yes and it uses the scientific method to reach its conclusions
14
Q
scientific method is rooted in a philosophical tradition known as what
A
empiricism
15
Q
what is empiricism
A
is the view that knowledge arises directly from what we observe and experience
this means that psychology (as with all scientific disciplines) is inherently observational in nature
16
Q
is much of what psychology is interested in is inherently unobservable or observable
A
unobservable (it is impossible to know what someone is thinking)
17
Q
is the mind unobservable or observable
A
mind is entirely unobservable
18
Q
how does behaviour help scientists to understand an individual
A
behaviour is used to make inferences about the mind (behaviour is made of actions, words, response times and even brain activity)
19
Q
what is dualism
A
philosophical idea that the mind anybody are separate entities
20
Q
what is dualism also known as
A
mind-body dualism
21
Q
many people are intuitive” dualists, what does this mean
A
believing themselves and others to exist apart from their physical bodies
22
Q
what is an example of intuitive dualists
A
afterlife is a place for the soul while the body is on earth
23
Q
who describes dualism best
A
René Descartes
24
Q
what did René Descartes argue
A
argued that the mind is inherently immaterial. He believed that thought could not be explained in terms of the physical body, although the mind could exert its influence over the body through the pineal gland (a small pinecone-shaped structure located near the center of the brain that is now believed to regulate circadian rhythms)
25
what concept did René Descartes give us
reflex, which he argued was the body acting without conscious action – without the mind
26
what did Descartes say was evidence for a mind and thus a soul
contending that while all animal behavior was unconscious reflex, evidence of human consciousness (e.g., “I think, therefore I am”) was evidence for a mind, and thus a soul
27
what did Descartes do in saying that there was unknowable forces that influenced the body
he removed it from science
| If studying the body and its behaviors can provide no insight into the mind, then it was pointless
28
do most psychologists toda adopt a dualistic mind
Most psychologists today do not adopt a dualistic perspective on the mind for this reason, instead assuming that the mind and the brain are in fact the same
29
Which of the following is not an example of "behavior" as defined by psychologists?
electrical impulses in the brain
the speed at which a rat navigates a maze
a person’s response to a question
the subjective emotions someone feels
the subjective emotions someone feels
30
Dualism is the belief that ______________ and body are separate
mind
31
Because the study of psychology is empirical, the field does which of the following?
arrives at the conclusions through observation and analysis
arrives at conclusions through intuitive understanding
arrives at conclusions through logic and reason alone
cannot arrive at conclusions, as the mind is unknowable
arrives at the conclusions through observation and analysis
32
what are the 2 primary areas of psychology
basic research, application and clinical work
33
what is basic research
attempt to understand fundamental principles that govern behaviour and mind
34
who is basic research typically done on
typically done on healthy people, not clinical populations
35
what are basic psychologists typically interested in
typically interested in a specific aspect of psychology, such as social interaction, memory, or how neurons interact with one another
36
what are the specialties under basic research psychology
```
Abnormal psychology
Behavioral genetics
cognitive psychology
Comparative psychology
Developmental psychology
Behavioral neuroscience
Personality psychology
social psychology
```
37
what is Abnormal psychology
research is interested in explaining how and why unusual and maladaptive behavior patterns develop by examining thoughts and emotions as well as the underlying biology of mental illness
38
what is Behavioral genetics
research attempts to explain individual differences in behavior patterns in terms of variation in genetic structure and expression
39
what is cognitive psychology
is broadly interested in how people process information and includes areas such as attention, perception, memory, problem-solving, language, and thought
40
what is Comparative psychology
is the study of the behavior of nonhuman animals, and it is often (but not always) interested in making a comparison to human psychology in an effort to discover underlying universals
41
what is Developmental psychology
studies the way that people develop across the lifespan, including how our thoughts and behaviors change as we age
42
what is Behavioral neuroscience
(sometimes “cognitive neuroscience” or “neuropsychology”) makes an effort to understand how specific brain regions or activities produce behavior, allowing psychologists to understand the physical underpinnings of their observations
43
what is Personality psychology
studies individual differences, investigating how and why people act differently based on their enduring characteristics or traits
44
what is social psychology
is interested in how an individual’s thoughts and actions are influenced by the social environment and the presence of others
45
Most research in psychology is done with clinical or special populations, such as prisoners
true
false
false
46
Which of these is basic research?
searching for a cure for depression
attempting to understand the causes of depression
looking for a better anti-depressant drug
testing out a new therapy to combat depression
attempting to understand the causes of depression
47
what does applied psychology focus on
solving practical problems
48
what is the goal of applied psychology
goal is to change behavior to solve some practical problem, such as resolving mental health issues, improving workplace efficiency, or improving educational outcomes
49
Rather than attempt to change behavior, a psychologist who does applied work might do what
solve a problem by devising a way to alter the environment so that it better matches with the behaviors in which people already engage
50
what are the 2 primary areas of applied psychology
research and practice
51
what is applied research psychology
done to discover a new or more effective way to solve some specific problem
52
what is translational research:
the effort is to translate basic findings into practical solutions.
translational research is applied research, but it is necessarily based on an attempt to apply discoveries from basic research to practical problems
53
what is practiced applied psychology
refers to the actual application of techniques to the problems themselves
often cyclical, with psychologists conducting research about a problem and then applying the research to create a solution
54
What are the fields of applied psychology
Consumer behavior, educational, forensic and legal, human factors, health, industrial and organizational, political, School
55
What is consumer behavior
Understanding the decisions consumers make about products and services
56
What is educational
Improving learning in classrooms and other educational settings
57
What is forensic and legal
applying psychological principles to features of the legal system
58
What are human factors
Designing products or processes in ways that improved usefulness or comfort for the people using them
59
What is health
Improving long-term physical health and healthcare by applying psychological principles
60
What is industrial and organizational
Helping organizations improve member performance, motivation or other role related outcomes
61
What is political
Understanding the role of psychology in the political process and the role of politics in psychology
62
What is school
Using psychology to improve the academic and social experiences of children in school
63
What is a research example of consumer behavior
Investigating the effectiveness of different kinds of advertisements
64
What is a practice example of consumer behavior
Designing a product label in ways known to increase consumer interest
65
What is a research example for educational
Testing how effective online homework is raising understanding
66
What is a practice example of educational
Designing a textbook to take advantage of research on learning
67
What is a research example of forensic and legal
Investigating the accuracy of eyewitness memory
68
What is a practice example of forensic and legal
Testifying about a defendants is competent to stand trial
69
What is a research example of human factors
Studying wish keyboard layout for helicopter pilot efficiencies as reduces errors
70
What is a practicing example of human factors
Designing the user interface for computer program with the target audience in mind
71
Which is the best description of translational research?
Using basic research findings to guide research on applied solutions
tackling only the problem without regard to its underlying mechanisms
Researching only the fundamental causes of a psychological problem
Cycling between applied research and applied practice
Using basic research findings to guide research on applied solutions
72
What is clinical psychology
defined by its focus on identifying, preventing, and relieving distress or dysfunction that is psychological in origin
73
What does clinical psychology focus on
mental health and wellness issues
74
What is the dominant type of psychology
clinical
75
What type of academic training to clinical psychologist typically have
Clinical psychologists generally have advanced academic training, such as a Ph.D. or Psy.D. (doctor of psychology)
76
what does A Ph.D. program in clinical psychology do
A Ph.D. program in clinical psychology encourages original research in addition to providing training on how to diagnose and treat mental illness, while a Psy.D. program usually focuses mostly on practice
77
What is the contrast of a clinical psychologist
psychiatrists
78
What are psychiatrists
medical doctors that focus on the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness
psychiatrists need to go to med school before completing residency in psychiatry
they can prescribe meds, where as psychologists cannot
clinical psychologists typically work together with psychiatrists or general practitioners to meet the needs of their clients
79
What is another major career path in clinical psychology
counseling psychologists
80
What is the difference between clinical psychology and counseling psychology
difference between clinical and counseling psychologists is in terms of the severity of issues they treat
clinical psychologists diagnose and treat more severe forms of mental illness, counseling psychologists focus on helping people deal with ongoing life problems/stressors/dealing with the transition from one life situation to another
81
```
What is the primary difference between clinical psychologists and psychiatrists?
The ability to treat mental illness
The kinds of training they receive
Their fields of study
The kinds of mental illness they treat
```
The kinds of training they receive
82
```
What is clinical psychology?
a form of applied psychology
Focused only on the treatment of severe mental illness
Practiced primarily by medical doctors
A pseudoscientific discipline
```
a form of applied psychology
83
```
According to the above text, which type of degree program focuses primarily on the practice of clinical psychology?
Ph.D
Ed.D
M.D
Psy.D
```
Psy.D
84
```
Basic research is to ________ as applied research is to ________.
Causes; problems
Problems; solutions
Causes; solutions
Solutions; causes
```
Causes; solutions
85
```
Translational research can be thought of as the bridge between what and what?
Applied research and applied practice
Basic research and applied practice
Basic research and clinical research
Applied research and clinical practice
```
Basic research and applied practice
86
Psychologists are only qualified to do either basic or applied research; few do both
true
false
false
87
what are the big questions of philosophers
: where does knowledge come from? what is the nature of the mind and soul?
88
what does the "where does knowledge come from?" lead to
question leads to the big debate of nature vs nurture
89
what would an entirely empires perspective on human experience argue
entirely empiricist perspective on human experience would argue that the mind begins as a blank slate and who we are is shaped entirely by the experiences we have. A contrasting position to empiricism is nativism
90
what is nativism
hypothesizes that some forms of knowledge are innate
91
what is the logical extreme of nativism called
biological determinism
92
how did Darwin's theory on evolution influence the shaping of psychological thought
traits that tend to be advantageous for survival and reproduction generally spread through a population more readily than traits that are not advantageous. Darwin called traits that are advantageous for survival and reproduction – such as a thick fur coat in an environment that is consistently cold – adaptive traits. He reasoned that adaptive traits tend to spread throughout a population because of the benefits they provide, by means of a process called natural selection
93
```
Which principle describes the fact that a trait must be able to be passed down from one generation to the next in order for it to be selected?
variations in phenotypes
heritability
the “struggle for existence”
variations in survival and reproduction
```
heritability
94
```
four basic principles involved in natural selection. Which principle describes the fact that in order for selection to occur, there must be different physical traits present in the population?
variations in phenotypes
heritability
the “struggle for existence”
variations in survival and reproduction
```
variations in phenotypes
95
A ______________ describes one’s genetic structure, while a ______________ describes one’s physical traits.
Genotype; stabilizing selection
Directional selection; phenotype
Genotype; phenotype
Directional selection; stabilizing selection
Genotype; phenotype
96
The peppered moth example could be applied to psychological traits. Which hypothetical example below is most similar to the peppered moths’ situation?
As humans have begun to use computers, people who learn to use technology are effectively evolving over the course of their own lifespans
As many humans now live in large cities, sootier skin tones will help protect them from predatory birds.
As most humans no longer need to hunt and produce their own food, evolution has effectively ended.
As humans began to live in larger social groups, those who could effectively communicate with other humans survived and reproduced in greater numbers
As humans began to live in larger social groups, those who could effectively communicate with other humans survived and reproduced in greater numbers
97
theory of evolution lent additional support to which position? nativist or empirical positions
nativist
98
what do psychologists think about the nature vs nurture debate today
Today, psychologists generally agree that most psychological phenomena are the result of interactions between nature and nurture and instead argue over the extent to which nature and nurture are responsible
99
how have philosophers guided psychologists
philosophers have often guided the questions that psychologists ask, the work of physiologists has helped psychologists forge links between the mind and the body
100
what did early nineteenth century, phrenology make the case of
early nineteenth century, phrenology made the case that the shape of the skull was the result of the size of brain structures beneath it
101
how did phrenology explain itself
because these different brain areas corresponded to different characteristics or abilities, phrenologists believed that knowing about the shape of a person’s skull could tell you about the person’s mental capacities as well. For example, phrenologists might claim to be able to tell you about a person’s tendency toward benevolence or attentiveness based on the shape of his or her head. Although now completely discredited, phrenology is a good example of how early, unscientific ideas about the relationship between the body and the mind have influenced the way in which psychology has developed
102
```
Nativism is best contrasted with ________.
empiricism
bio. determinism
dualism
phrenology
```
empiricism
103
Evidence that the Ponzo illusion exists even in newly-sighted people demonstrates that which of the following is true?
Not all knowledge is native
All knowledge is native
not all knowledge is a result of experience
All knowledge is a result of experience
not all knowledge is a result of experience
104
what was Wilhem Wundt interested in
was interested in sensation and perception – how people understand the world and turn it into ideas and thoughts. Mental experience – the mind – was his major area of study
105
who was the first person to self-identify as a psychologist
Wilhem Wundt
106
what is structuralism
attempting to break down immediate conscious experience into its basic elements.
107
what is introspection
method developed by Wundt (structuralism) to understand the components of mental processes by relying on trained participants’ self-reports of their thoughts, feelings and mental images
108
what was the first movement in psychology
structuralism
109
what s the problem with introspection
Two people’s descriptions of a subjective experience can be wildly different, however, and it is difficult to have any kind of objective sense of accuracy about another person’s internal experiences
110
who was Titchener
one of Wundt’s best students),
| Titchener (one of Wundt’s best students) believed that the problem could be solved through systematic introspection.
111
what is systematic introspection
Where introspection simply considered experiences of one individual, the process of systematic introspection attempted to standardize the way conscious experiences were reported so that one person’s experiences could be compared to another’s more effectively
112
```
Where was the first psychology laboratory founded?
The University of Leipzig
Cornell University
Vienna, Austria
The University of Chicago
```
University of Leipzig
113
The primary goal of structuralism is which of the following?
To break down behaviors into the smallest units possible
To understand the relationship between structures of the brain and
To break down conscious experience into its most basic parts
To scientifically study people’s reactions to stimuli
To break down conscious experience into its most basic parts
114
who criticized structuralism immensely
William James
115
what was William James' position
position was that the structuralist movement was fundamentally misguided
While structuralists may be able to break down conscious experience into its basic elements, he argued that studying these pieces without an understanding of their function would provide little to no actual insight into the workings of the mind
116
what is functionalism
The position that psychologists must first understand the function of a behavior or mental process in order to understand how its parts work together
117
what was functionalism influenced heavily by
Darwin’s theory of evolution
118
how wa functionalism influenced by evolution theory
Evolutionary theory heavily emphasizes the functional nature of traits and describes how adaptive traits exist to solve specific problem
Examples of physical adaptive traits would be the selection for hairiness in environments where cold weather is common or camouflaged body patterns in animals whose primary defense from predators is to hide. While a structuralist might understand the length of each individual hair and the average spacing from one follicle to the next, a functionalist would argue that those details are meaningless without knowing that the purpose of fur is to keep the body warm. Functionalists simply extended the argument from physical traits to include psychological processes as well
119
who was credited with defining the primary tenets of functionalism
James Rowland Angell is credited with defining the primary tenets of functionalism
120
did functionalism superseded structuralism
It would be unfair to say that functionalism superseded structuralism— it just offered another perspective
121
what is gestalt psychology
focusing on understanding how people perceived a unified whole out of the many chaotic individual elements of sensation; this was in some opposition to traditional structuralism as well. The “snakes” optical illusion presented earlier in the chapter, for example, leads to a perception that is different from simply the sum of its parts – motion is perceived where none exists. Finally, both structuralism and functionalism (and most early work in psychology) focused on exploring immediate conscious experience, and they often used similar methods to do so
122
```
The functionalist movement in psychology began in:
austria
N.A.
Germany
U.K
```
N.A.
| north america
123
```
Early functionalists were heavily influenced by which of the following
Aristotle’s concept of the blank slate
Descartes’ concept of dualism
Darwin’s evolutionary theory
Phrenologists’ work on the skull
```
Darwin’s evolutionary theory
124
why were Many psychologists were growing increasingly skeptical of introspection
Many psychologists were growing increasingly skeptical of introspection and its inherently subjective nature
Because introspection was the primary method of studying conscious experience at the time, skepticism developed around how possible it was to study the mind in a scientific fashion
125
around the same time as the skeptics about introspection, what field of psychology was gaining
study of animal psychology found itself gaining
126
why was animal psychology gaining
introspection isn’t possible with animals – you can’t simply ask a dog or a lab rat to tell you what it’s thinking
127
who was one of the leading thinkers in behaviorist psychology
Skinner
128
what was Skinner is best known for
Skinner is best known for his work on operant conditioning in particular – the study of how behavior can be modified using a system of rewards and punishments operant conditioning
129
Which of these was not a factor in the rise of behaviorism?
Increasing skepticism regarding systematic introspection
rise in work done studying animal behavior
John B. Watson’s efforts to popularize the movement
The advent of World War I
The advent of World War I
130
Most of the discoveries made by behaviorist psychologists are considered no longer valid today
true
false
false
131
renewed interest in mental processes and the mind (aka cognitive revolution) began in what year
the 1950s
132
This so-called "cognitive revolution”was a major shift away from what
the strict behaviorism that had dominated the field for several decades
133
who wrote about the cognitive revolution
Steven Pinker wrote about the cognitive revolution in his book The Blank Slate (2002)
134
```
Steven Pinker explains that what device was instrumental in reshaping understanding of the mind?
the computer
Cerebral angiography
Radioactive neuroimaging devices
Space shuttles
```
the computer
135
```
Pinker lists a few topic areas that all fall under one “umbrella” term. What is this term?
neuroscience
cognitive science
linguistics
computing
```
cognitive science
136
what were early thoughts on the causes on mental illness'
Early thought on the treatment of mental illness was unsystematic and varied, with causes of mental illness thought to be anything from an imbalance of four bodily fluids (referred to as humors) to demonic possession
137
who was at the forefront of modern conceptions of mental illnesses and their treatments
modern conceptions of mental illnesses and their treatment didn’t emerge until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, with Sigmund Freud at the forefront
138
Freud believed that these illnesses originated from where
the unconscious mind
139
what is the unconscious mind
– a portion of the mind that is closed off from conscious analysis
140
what did Psychoanalysis propose
multiple theories about the unconscious mind that touch on a variety of topics in psychology, including personality, development, and of course, causes of mental illness
According to Freud’s system of psychoanalysis, the critical component to resolving mental health issues was the process of analyzing the contents of the unconscious mind so that relevant thoughts and feelings could be brought up to the level of consciousness. Another way of phrasing this is to say that he believed patients needed to gain insight into the unconscious factors that were causing them distress. To do this, he used a variety of techniques that he believed tapped into the unconscious mind
141
what did freud use to tap into the unconcious
analyzing minor errors or slips in speech, listening to his patients’ fantasies or having a patient report her thoughts freely and without filtering their content (i.e., free association), and dream analysis. Freud would spend hours and hours with his patients in an attempt to discover and analyze the contents of their unconscious minds
142
```
From where did Freud believe psychological problems originate?
The nervous system
An imbalance in bodily humors
Our failure to face reality
The unconscious mind
```
The unconscious mind
143
Psychoanalysis is Freud’s system for: (multiple answers)
Tapping into the contents of the unconscious mind
Allowing people to gain insight into their unconscious mind
Helping people learn to lead healthier mental lives
Tapping into the contents of the unconscious mind
| Allowing people to gain insight into their unconscious mind
144
frauds theories led him to focus on what
“base” unconscious urges related to sexual frustration and aggression
145
why were freud's views unpopular
This unflattering portrait of human nature, the arguably sexist assumptions of some of his theories, and his assertion that people are generally powerless to do anything to address their unconscious urges without extensive analysis did not sit well with many clinicians
146
what is humanistic psychology
proposes that people have free will and the capacity to realize their own potential
focuses on positive aspects of the human condition, including creativity, choice, and the potential for growth. By shifting the focus away from the unconscious mind and onto the capacity for change, humanistic psychologists aimed to give control back to their clients
147
who were 2 of the most influencial humanists
Rogers and Maslow
148
what did Roger's approach consist of
Rogers' person-centered approach to therapy refocusing the clinical environment on the needs of the client rather than expertise of the clinician (1951). In person-centered therapy, the role of the therapist is to support and listen in contrast to a psychoanalyst’s need to analyze and direct
149
what did Maslow's approach consist of
once basic needs are met, Maslow believed that people are motivated to fulfill their psychological needs and ultimately strive for self-actualization, which is an ideal state of reaching one’s fullest potential
150
Seligman has created a renewed interest in studying the more positive aspects of the human condition through his focus on what he has termed what
Seligman has created a renewed interest in studying the more positive aspects of the human condition through his focus on what he has termed positive psychology.
151
what is positive psychology
Positive psychology is a branch of psychology focused not on what can go wrong with human functioning (as is the case with much of clinical psychology) but instead on studying how humans flourish and how positive outcomes can be achieved
152
```
The humanist movement in clinical psychology was largely a reaction to ___________
Wundt’s structuralism
James’ functionalism
Watson’s behaviorism
Freud’s psychoanalysis
```
Freud’s psychoanalysis
153
Positive psychologists focus on which of the following?
How to make people happy and content
Improving human functioning and the positive side of human nature
The positive aspects of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis
Making clients feel at ease and putting the client at the center of the therapeutic experience
Improving human functioning and the positive side of human nature
154
Who is considered the “father of modern psychology”?
Wilhelm Wundt
155
Who is considered the “father of American psychology”?
William James
156
Order the movements in the scientific study of psychology chronologically
structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, cognitive revolution
157
What was the fundamental disagreement between psychoanalysts and the humanists
The role of outside influences on mental illness
The biological basis of mental illness
The capacity for free will and change
The techniques used by Freud
The capacity for free will and change
158
what do psychologist subscribe to most today (as in what approach)
most psychologists reject the notion that there is one “true” way to study or practice psychology, instead acknowledging that different schools of thought can offer different insights and strengths
159
wha is eclectic approach
Choosing the most effective therapeutic technique given the present circumstances is known as an eclectic approach. (“Eclectic” means that ideas are taken from a variety of sources.
160
For any psychological phenomenon, there are multiple ways of explaining its cause. A primary way to divide these levels of explanation is how
is in terms of ultimate and proximate explanations, a tradition that began in biology
161
what are ultimate explanations
Ultimate explanations attempt to address the reasons why a psychological phenomenon occurs by appealing to its role in the process of evolution. A now-classic example of the distinction between ultimate and proximate explanations in human behavior is the many ways in which we can attempt to explain why babies cry (Zeifman, 2001). An ultimate explanation of crying appeals to its evolutionary role: crying is a signal to caregivers that the infant needs care of some kind. In other words, the “crying as a signal to caregivers” explanation provides the ultimate reason for why crying occurs
162
what are proximate explinations
proximate explanations attempt to describe an immediate cause of a psychological phenomenon. Proximate explanations of infants’ crying would include both specific, functional reasons (such as getting a caregiver to provide food) as well as explanations that appeal to specific mental or physical processes (such as the experience of fear or the activation of biological systems that cause tears to well up in the eyes).
163
can proximate explanations be further divided
divide proximate explanations further based on the types just described: functional explanations and process-oriented explanations
164
what are Functional explanations
Functional explanations are proximate explanations that seek to identify a specific problem as the cause of a psychological phenomenon, such as getting a caregiver to provide food or remove a painful object in our crying example
165
what are Process-oriented explanations
Process-oriented explanations are proximate explanations that focus on how a specific mental or physical process explains a psychological phenomenon, such as how crying is the result of biological processes happening in the tear duct
166
how are ultimate and proximate explanations related
Ultimate and proximate explanations are complementary in nature, as they explain different aspects of the same phenomena. Generally, knowing the ultimate explanation (the “evolutionary function”) for a phenomenon in psychology helps you make predictions about its proximate explanations, including specific situational functions for the phenomenon and the mental and physical processes involved in its execution
167
are all phenomena in psychology products of evolution
It is important to note that not all phenomena in psychology are products of evolution – these phenomena do not have truly ultimate explanations (as ultimate explanations must be rooted in evolutionary theory) and instead have only functional or process-oriented explanations. For example, some psychologists believe that motion sickness is simply a byproduct of how our nervous systems happen to be arranged: our balancing circuitry and our vomiting circuitry just happen to be unfortunately close together (Golding, 2016). Because this explanation for motion sickness stems from the arrangement of the nervous system (a process-oriented explanation) and not the functional or evolutionary purpose of motion sickness, no functional or ultimate explanation is necessary. Psychologists today are concerned with addressing these different levels of explanation and understanding how they work with and inform one another. To this end, psychologists study the evolutionary influences, cultural influences, biological influences, and cognitive influences on behavior and mind
168
Match each explanation with its proper level
Ultimate explanation— Language exists because it was adaptive for humans to be able to communicate with one another over the course of evolutionary history
Functional explanation—Language can be used to explain how people deceive one another to gain an advantage in a trade.
Process-oriented explanation— Language is produced and understood by portions of the temporal lobe of the brain
Ultimate explanation— Language exists because it was adaptive for humans to be able to communicate with one another over the course of evolutionary history
Functional explanation—Language can be used to explain how people deceive one another to gain an advantage in a trade.
Process-oriented explanation— Language is produced and understood by portions of the temporal lobe of the brain
169
while evolution may play a role, it leaves unanswered questions... such as
Why would a mother sacrifice her life for that of her children? Don’t rising obesity rates imply that our eating patterns are maladaptive?
170
Another realization was that in order to understand a behavior completely, its context must be considered as well. Behaviors that appear maladaptive today may not always have been so, give an example of this
– a preference for sweet foods may lead to an increased incidence of diabetes in today’s world of fast food and high fructose corn syrup, but was likely useful throughout much of humanity’s evolutionary past. Fruits and other sweet food are calorie-dense and important sources of nutrition for many apes and other animals
171
what is evolutionary psychology
Some psychologists today continue to apply the theory of evolution to psychology, searching for ultimate explanations of psychological phenomena. This approach to psychology is known as evolutionary psychology, and it strives to explain how mental processes and behavior have developed over the course of evolutionary history
172
Evolutionary psychologists’ claims are often difficult to verify because of which of the following reasons?
Their claims rely on experimental evidence
It is difficult to know exactly what happened over the course of evolutionary history
Their claims are non-scientific
It is difficult to know the difference between and ultimate and a proximate explanation
It is difficult to know exactly what happened over the course of evolutionary history
173
what is culture
the shared set of beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and customs belonging to a specific group or community of people
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how are the groups in relation to culture organized
These groups and communities are generally organized around a shared characteristic or set of characteristics, such as race or ethnicity, nationality, income, sexual orientation, religious identity, or even sets of ideas such as political affiliation
175
what is Feminist psychology
analyzes the role that gender plays in a person’s development and behaviors, appealing to cultural differences in the ways societies raise and treat men and women
176
who first proposed the intersectional approach to studying issues related to culture and cultural identity
Kimberlé Crenshaw
177
what is the intersectional approach
emphasizing that people are not defined by any single aspect of their identities
178
Early work on cultural influences on psychological processes focused on which of the following?
Discovering underlying “universals” cross-culturally
Comparing and contrasting Eastern and Western cultures to discover how they are fundamentally different from each other
Investigating intersections of different identities
Describing the effects of cultural expectations on gender roles
Discovering underlying “universals” cross-culturally
179
An intersectional approach looks at _________.
The unique experiences that people of color have
The commonalities shared by all minority groups
The unique experiences that result from having multiple identities
The commonalities shared by minority and majority groups
The unique experiences that result from having multiple identities
180
Advances in biomedical science have also led to improvements in the ways that psychologists comprehend the biological underpinnings of behavior and mind, how is this possible
Today, we can “peek in” at mental processes as they are happening in the brain using equipment such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), allowing us to view changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain in real time as people think
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how is Most research into the biological influences on psychology is informative
it provides us with insight into process-oriented explanations, specifically concerning the biological processes that are linked to behavior. These biological processes range from explanations of how neuron activity relates to the specific functions of different areas of the brain to predicting what changes in brain physiology accompany various forms of mental illness
182
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To what level of explanation do biological influences on psychology generally point?
ultimate
functional
process-oriented
low-level
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process-oriented
183
Psychologists studying cognitive influences on psychology typically investigate which of the following?
The role of information processing on a problem or situation
The role of brain structures on a problem or situation
The role of upbringing on a problem or situation
The role of adaptations to solve a problem or situation
The role of information processing on a problem or situation
184
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Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand whether different groups of the same species of monkey had different rules regarding what was fair?
Evolutionary influences
Cultural influences
Biological influences
Cognitive influences
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Cultural influences
185
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Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand how a “sense of fairness” developed in humans compared to capuchin monkeys?
Evolutionary influences
Cultural influences
Biological influences
Cognitive influences
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Evolutionary influences
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Which influence would we most likely be studying if we tried to understand the hormones and neurons involved in activating a “sense of fairness”?
Evolutionary influences
Cultural influences
Biological influences
Cognitive influences
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Biological influences
187
What does the Greek root-word “psyche” mean, in terms of psychology ?
"Breath” / “spirit
188
Aristotle’s idea regarding the mind as tabula rasa is most similar to _______.
Empiricism
189
What two disciplines are considered the intellectual foundation of psychology?
Philosophy and Physiology
190
Psychologists use the term behavior to refer to which of the following?
To anything that can be observed and measured in a systematic way
191
Ronan is studying the emotion of disgust. Which of the following is the correct matchup between types of behavior and appropriate inferences about the mind?
The feeling of disgust is a behavior; based on this behavior, Ronan infers that the person he is watching is making a “yuck” face
“yuck” face is a behavior; based on this behavior, Ronan infers that the person he is watching feels disgusted.
Ronan’s own feeling of disgust is a behavior; based on his own behavior, Ronan infers that the person he is watching feels disgust also
Ronan’s own “yuck” face is a behavior; based on his own behavior, Ronan infers that the person he is watching feels disgust also
A “yuck” face is a behavior; based on this behavior, Ronan infers that the person he is watching feels disgusted
192
Which of these does not illustrate how people tend to be intuitive dualists?
The idea of an “out-of-body” experience
A movie in which two characters switch bodies
Kafka’s Metamorphosis in which a character goes to sleep and wakes up as a cockroach
The belief that people continue to exist when we are not looking at them
The belief that people continue to exist when we are not looking at them
193
Basic research is primarily concerned with what types of issues
Discovering basic principles of behavior and mind
194
Melanie works for a toy company that is designing a children’s toy that should optimize the educational aspect of playtime based on data collected by other psychologists. Melanie most likely works in ________
Applied psychology – practice
195
Match each activity to its proper field of psychology. (already matched, just good for explanation)
human factors— Investigating how to design a stove so that people are more likely to know which knob turns on which burner
behavioural genetics— Conducting a study in mice to look for genes that make them more likely to experience depression.
health— Creating a testing regimen for diabetic patients in the retirement home you work with that is easy for them to remember
consumer behaviour— Putting food in green and brown containers to imply that it is healthy and more natural
Clinical— Helping someone overcome a panic attack
196
What is the primary difference between clinical psychologists and counseling psychologists
Counseling psychologists tend to deal with ongoing problems, while clinical psychologists deal with more severe issues
197
Dr. Jenkins has people visit her in her office to discuss their problems, such as adjusting to college life, dealing with a tough break-up, or struggling with sadness. What type of psychology would you say Dr. Jenkins does? Is it research or practice?
Counseling; practice
198
What is biological determinism
The idea that biology entirely determines how behavior manifests
199
Which of these is evidence for a nativist stance regarding knowledge?
Perceptual illusions can be overcome with knowledge
Some perceptual illusions are not the result of experience
People learn new information through experience
People are entirely driven by responses to stimuli
Some perceptual illusions are not the result of experience
200
Natural selection requires that which of the following is true?
The mind is treated as a blank slate, with all learning done through experience
All traits are equally adaptive
Different traits lead to different outcomes in terms of survival and reproduction success
Individuals are not different in terms of their traits
Different traits lead to different outcomes in terms of survival and reproduction success
201
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Which method did Edward Titchener use to understand the mind?
Systematic introspection
Behavioral modification
Psychoanalysis
Person-centered therapy
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Systematic introspection
202
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Ar’Reon is studying the sense of taste by training individuals to be able to accurately report their thoughts, feelings, and sensations. He uses these self-reports to construct a model of the components of taste. Ar’Reon is using what technique and is a follower of what classic movement in psychology?
Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism
Psychoanalysis, Functionalism
Psychoanalysis, Structuralism
Systematic Introspection, Behaviorism
Systematic Introspection, Functionalism
Systematic Introspection, Structuralism
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Systematic Introspection, Structuralism
203
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B. F. Skinner was a _______.
structuralist
functionalist
behaviourist
humanist
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behaviourist
204
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Wilhelm Wundt was a __________
structuralist
functionalist
behaviourist
humanist
```
structuralist
205
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Which pairing of famous psychologist and historical theory of psychology is incorrect ?
John Watson – Behaviorism
William James – Functionalism
Edward Titchener – Structuralism
Abraham Maslow – Psychoanalysis
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Abraham Maslow – Psychoanalysis
206
The computer and other technologies helped lead to which of the following?
The cognitive revolution
The structuralist perspective
Advances in positive psychology
Better understanding of cultural influences in psychology
The cognitive revolution
207
One of Freud’s signature influences on the history of clinical psychology was his emphasis on _________.
The unconscious mind
208
Ultimate explanations require an appeal to what?
Evolutionary theory
209
Humanist psychology focused largely on what?
The ability of people to grow and change
210
Functional explanations describe ______________, while process-oriented explanations describe ______________.
Specific proximate causes; specific proximate mechanisms
Ultimate causes; specific proximate problems
Specific proximate causes; ultimate causes
None of these
Specific proximate causes; specific proximate mechanisms
211
Modern psychologists would reject which of the following statements?
Cultural factors play a significant role in how behaviors develop
The mind is fundamentally distinct from the brain
Evolutionary history can be informative when considering how the brain operates
Brain scans such as fMRIs and PET are useful tools in psychological research
The mind is fundamentally distinct from the brain
212
Most modern psychologists would agree that which of the following is true?
Understanding the neural underpinnings of behavior is not particularly relevant to psychology
Cultural factors do not contribute to any unique differences across groups of people
We can infer what goes on inside the mind based on behavioral observations
Genetics contribute little to the development of behavior
We can infer what goes on inside the mind based on behavioral observations
213
What kind of approach emphasizes examining how multiple social identities intersect at the level of the individual person to alter their experiences?
Intersectional approaches to psychology
214
If you believe that the cause of the change in behavior is primarily a result of how children’s mental processes are organized, which influence do you think is most likely responsible?
cognitive
215
If you believe that the cause of the change in behavior is primarily the simple fact that the physiology of children’s brains and different areas of processing need time to develop and grow before they can understand conservation, which influence do you think is most likely responsible?
Biological
