Chapter 11 Flashcards

(46 cards)

1
Q

define sex

A

a persons genetic makeup - whether the sex chromosome is XX (F), XY (M), X (F), XXY (M), or XXYY (M)

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2
Q

define sexuality

A

refers to the way people experience and express themselves sexually

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3
Q

what does intersex mean?

A

A person whose sex traits (chromosomes, genitals, or hormones) don’t fit typical male or female categories.

ex: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS): A person with XY chromosomes but whose body doesn’t respond to male hormones, leading to female or mixed physical traits.

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4
Q

what is gender?

A

Gender is not the same as sex; it refers to the socially constructed roles and expectations linked to a sex category.

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5
Q

What is gender identity?

A

A person’s internal sense of being male, female, or something else.

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6
Q

What is the gender binary?

A

The idea that people are only classified as either male or female.

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7
Q

What does cisgender mean?

A

A person whose gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at birth.

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8
Q

What does transgender mean?

A

A person whose gender identity does not match their assigned sex at birth, including those who identify outside the male-female binary.

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9
Q

What are gender roles?

A

Behaviors that follow societal expectations for how males and females should act, often reinforcing social inequality.

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10
Q

What is heteronormativity?

A

The belief that sex is strictly male or female, that gender should match assigned sex, and that heterosexuality is the norm.

ex: Hank Green discusses heteronormativity by explaining how society assumes people are either straight and cisgender, and that gender should align with biological sex. He challenges these ideas, promoting inclusivity and breaking away from the traditional male-female, heterosexual binary.

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11
Q

What is essentialism?

A

The belief that gender differences are based on biological differences between men and women (the “nature” argument).

nature assignment: men and women are different because they are born with distinct biological characteristics (like hormones, chromosomes, and physical traits) that naturally shape their behaviors, roles, and abilities.

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12
Q

What is social constructionism?

A

The belief that gender differences are shaped by social and cultural influences, and people are socialized into their gender roles (the “nurture” argument).

nurture assignment: men are socialized to be aggressive based on cultural expectations, such as being taught from a young age that men should be strong, competitive, and assertive.

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13
Q

How do essentialism and social constructionism differ?

A

Essentialism views gender differences as biologically hardwired, while social constructionism sees them as learned and influenced by society. These views are at opposite ends of a continuum, but many people believe in a mix of both.

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14
Q

what is essentialism in the context of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology?

A

the belief that men and women behave differently because of natural, biological reasons tied to reproduction. The idea is that since women have a limited number of eggs and men produce sperm constantly, women might be more selective with partners, while men might be driven to mate with as many women as possible to spread their genes.

Example:
An example of this idea is that men might be seen as more competitive or aggressive because, biologically, they’re trying to ensure their genes are passed on by having many offspring. Women, on the other hand, might be seen as more nurturing and focused on securing a reliable partner to raise children, since they have fewer chances to reproduce.

Essentialists argue that these biological differences explain why men and women act the way they do, and that the inequalities between them are just “natural” and unchangeable.

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15
Q

What is the connection between functionalism and essentialism regarding gender roles?

A

Functionalism and essentialism both believe that traditional gender roles are important for society to work well. Essentialism argues that men and women have inherent traits (e.g., men are rational and competitive, women are nurturing and sensitive) that align with their roles. These traits are seen as “natural” and necessary for society to function smoothly. People who don’t fit these roles are expected to conform or even be punished.

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16
Q

What are some critiques of essentialism?

A

1) Cultural and historical variability: Gender roles change over time and in different cultures. People express masculinity and femininity in various ways across history and locations.

2) Generalizing from averages: Essentialism assumes all men and women fit certain traits, like men being stronger. But many women are stronger than average men, and many men are weaker than average women.

3) Lack of evidence: There’s little proof supporting essentialist ideas about biological differences between men and women. In fact, research shows that men’s and women’s brains are more similar than previously thought.

4) Ignoring power dynamics: Essentialism overlooks the role of power in shaping gender roles. Historically, men have had more power to define and enforce societal norms, making gender differences seem “natural” when they are often socially constructed.

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17
Q

What is the feminist perspective on male domination?

A

The feminist perspective argues that male domination is rooted in:

Patriarchal authority relations – The power structures that favor men over women.

Family structures – Family dynamics that often place men in dominant roles.

Socialization and culture – Societal patterns that shape gender roles and reinforce male dominance.

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18
Q

What is social constructionism?

A

Social constructionism argues that things we think are natural or innate, like gender, are actually created and maintained by social processes. These processes change over time and vary across different cultures. Gender, in particular, is seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.

ex: In some cultures, wearing skirts is considered a feminine trait, while in others, it’s worn by men. This shows that gender roles, like what’s considered “appropriate” clothing for men and women, are socially constructed and vary across societies.

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19
Q

What is gender socialization?

A

Gender socialization is the process by which we learn what it means to be male or female. This happens through various influences, such as toys. For example, girls’ toys often focus on nurturing, physical attractiveness, and indoor activities, while boys’ toys emphasize aggression, competition, and outdoor activities.

20
Q

How do parents influence gender socialization?

A

Parents shape children’s understanding of gender by influencing their activities, toys, and environment. For example, fathers may engage in competitive play with their sons but not as much with their daughters. Parents often encourage girls to play cooperative, role-playing games. The toys parents buy, the colors they choose for clothes or rooms, and other factors all reinforce societal ideas of what boys and girls should be like.

21
Q

How does gender socialization happen in schools and workplaces?

A

In schools:
Textbooks often highlight male contributions in subjects like science.

Teachers may attribute males’ success in math and science to natural ability, while attributing females’ success to hard work.

Sports are often segregated by sex and gendered in their expectations.

In the workplace:
Women in leadership roles are often perceived as less competent due to gendered expectations about how they interact with subordinates.

Male scholars are more likely to publish solo-authored articles, while female scholars often co-author more frequently. These patterns reinforce gender roles and biases.

22
Q

What is a gender role schema?

A

A gender role schema is a set of interrelated ideas about what is considered appropriate masculine and feminine behavior. These ideas are typically well-formed by the age of 14 or 15.

ex: By the age of 14, a person might have a well-formed idea that boys should be strong, competitive, and interested in sports, while girls should be nurturing, sensitive, and interested in caregiving activities. This belief reflects the gender role schema, shaping expectations for behavior based on gender.

23
Q

How is gender represented in the mass media?

A

women are often underrepresented as characters in TV shows and movies. When they are portrayed, it’s usually in stereotypical roles (e.g., as caregivers or in romantic situations).

men are more likely to be shown in work roles and often portrayed as financially successful. This reinforces traditional gender expectations.

24
Q

how does the media influence body image?

A

The media promotes thinness as the ideal body shape, often leading people to feel pressure to conform to these standards. This has fueled the growth of industries like fitness, weight-loss diets, low-calorie foods, and cosmetic surgery, all of which generate billions of dollars annually in North America.

25
How does media affect body image and perceptions of appearance?
Nearly half of women and one-third of men in the U.S. are dissatisfied with their weight, often influenced by media images of slimness. Both men and women tend to negatively evaluate their own appearance when exposed to slim images in the media. The question arises: why is physical appearance more emphasized for women than for men? It may not be due to "nature" or vanity, but because women have historically been socialized to focus on appearance to attract a partner, highlighting gendered expectations around relationships.
26
How do gender roles affect male-female interactions?
Gender roles learned in childhood shape how men and women interact as adults. This can lead to misunderstandings between the genders and can limit women’s career progress by reinforcing expectations that may constrain their choices or opportunities. ex: A woman might be overlooked for a leadership position at work because of the stereotype that women are better suited for nurturing or support roles rather than assertive, decision-making roles.
27
How does gender inequality affect life paths?
Gender inequality, shaped by socialization, media representation, body image, and more, influences the paths men and women take in life, affecting their chances of success. These factors don’t just lead to discrimination; they also shape internalized attitudes, limited aspirations, and a lack of role models. For example, if girls are repeatedly told they aren’t good at math or science, they might internalize that belief, even if it’s not true, and avoid pursuing those fields. This kind of feedback can limit opportunities and growth, and women are more likely to experience this than men.
28
How does gender inequality affect women's career choices and pay?
When women end up in low-paying professions, it’s often dismissed as their personal preference or natural biological choice. However, this overlooks a key issue: professions that attract more women tend to pay less. There's evidence that jobs which were once dominated by men (like bank tellers, flight attendants, and secretaries) began to pay less once women entered them. This is due to the devaluation of women's labor, known as the "feminization" of professions, which lowers their economic value.
29
What are the three major sociohistorical processes that contribute to the growth of gender inequality?
1) Long-distance warfare and conquest: As societies engaged in warfare and conquest, men took on the dominant roles in defending and expanding territories, which reinforced male dominance in social and political structures. 2) Plow agriculture: The rise of plow-based agriculture required more physical labor, which was often seen as men's work, leading to the division of labor and reinforcing gender roles. 3) Separation of public and private spheres: As societies began to separate the public (work and politics) and private (home and family) spheres, men were increasingly associated with the public, authoritative space, while women were relegated to the private, domestic space. This separation further entrenched gender inequalities.
30
What were the key factors that contributed to the growth of gender equality in the 20th century?
1) Increased life expectancy: People lived longer, which allowed more opportunities for women in various aspects of life. 2) Fewer children: Families began having fewer children, which meant women could pursue other interests, including work and education. 3) Expansion of the service sector: As the economy's service sector grew, there was greater demand for women in the paid workforce. 4) Increased economic value of women: With more women in the workforce, they became more economically valuable and thus gained more power. 5) Women’s movement: The women's movement fought for and won key battles, securing more rights and opportunities for women.
31
What are some key factors contributing to the earnings gap between men and women?
Occupational Sex Segregation: 1) Horizontal: The unequal distribution of men and women across different types of occupations (e.g., more women in caregiving roles, more men in technical or leadership roles). 2) Vertical: The unequal distribution of men and women within the same occupations, with men often holding higher positions or earning more within the same field. 3) Motherhood Penalty: Women who become mothers often experience a drop in earnings due to expectations around childrearing and potential work interruptions. 4) Fatherhood Premium: Men who become fathers tend to see a boost in earnings, possibly due to societal expectations of them as breadwinners. 5) Childrearing Responsibility: Women, on average, shoulder a greater share of childrearing duties compared to men, which can impact their career progression and earnings.
32
What is liberal feminism?
Liberal feminism believes that women's subordination is caused by learned gender roles and the denial of opportunities. It advocates for decreasing gender-role socialization and ideologies to increase equality. This would improve the lives of all people, not just women, but also men and those who don’t fit into traditional gender categories. Liberal feminists argue that while men and women are different, these differences are not as significant or unchangeable as often portrayed, especially when exaggerated by focusing on biology. ex: Liberal feminism might advocate for policies like equal pay for equal work, arguing that women should be paid the same as men for doing the same job, regardless of their gender. This approach challenges the belief that men are inherently better suited for certain roles, showing that the difference in pay is more about societal expectations and opportunities than any biological differences.
33
What are the main reasons for the gender pay gap?
1. Gender discrimination: Men and women may be paid differently for doing the same work. While this is illegal in many countries, employers may argue that the work isn't exactly the same. 2. Occupational sex segregation: Women often end up in lower-paying professions, while men are in higher-paying fields. 3. Domestic responsibilities: Women tend to shoulder more domestic duties, such as childcare and elder care, which can limit their career advancement. 4. Devaluation of women’s work: Professions that are predominantly female (e.g., teaching, nursing) tend to be paid less than male-dominated fields, despite requiring similar levels of skill and education.
34
What are some ways to eliminate the gender gap in earnings?
1. Better child care system: Developing affordable and accessible child care options would help alleviate the burden on women, allowing them to participate more fully in the workforce. 2. Equal pay for equal value: This policy would ensure that jobs of equal value are paid the same, even if they are different types of work. However, it is challenging to implement in practice due to differing perceptions of job value. 3. Changes in socialization: Encouraging both boys and girls to equally pursue interests in fields like STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) from an early age, to prevent the gender disparity seen in these fields later in high school and beyond.
35
What are some reasons girls lose interest in STEM, and how can the gender gap in STEM be reduced?
Girls may lose interest in STEM due to peer pressure, lack of role models, and misperceptions about what STEM careers involve. To address this, reducing gendered stereotypes of science and providing more female role models and support from parents and teachers can help encourage girls to pursue STEM.
36
define sexual harasment
Sexual harassment in the workplace refers to any conduct, comment, gesture, or contact of a sexual nature that could cause offence or humiliation to an employee. It can also include actions that might reasonably be perceived as making employment, training, or promotion opportunities conditional on a sexual nature.
37
What does the 2018 Canada-wide survey reveal about unwanted sexual behaviour and sexual assault?
The 2018 Canada-wide survey found that about one in three women over the age of 14 had experienced some form of unwanted sexual behaviour in the past year. Despite the prevalence of sexual assault, experts report that less than 1% of cases result in jail time. Sexual assault is rooted in power dynamics and the devaluation of women, often reflecting a belief that women are social subordinates meant to serve and please men.
38
What does intimate partner abuse look like in Canada?
Intimate partner abuse accounts for about 30% of police-reported violent crimes in Canada, with approximately 80% of victims being women. The level of gender inequality in the family is positively associated with intimate partner violence, particularly in heterosexual couples. Women are more likely than men to experience severe forms of abuse, including physical aggression, choking, sexual assault, and even homicide.
39
How does violence against women affect Indigenous women in Canada?
Violence against women should be understood through an intersectional lens. Indigenous women face disproportionately high rates of violence, with their homicide rate being more than 6 times higher than that of non-Indigenous women. Additionally, when Indigenous women report violence and charges are laid, there is a higher rate of dismissed charges or not-guilty outcomes compared to non-Indigenous Canadians.
40
How do queer theorists view sexuality?
Queer theorists challenge the idea that sexuality is a fixed and unchanging aspect of identity. They argue that sexuality is more fluid and that labels can force people into categories that may not reflect their true experiences. For queer theorists, sexuality is something that people do, not something they inherently are.
41
What is sexual orientation?
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s pattern of physical, romantic, and emotional attraction to, and/or intimate relationships with individuals of different genders, the same gender, no gender, or more than one gender. This pattern can change over time and across different contexts.
42
What does "Beyond Heteronormativity" mean?
"Beyond Heteronormativity" refers to recognizing and accepting the wide range of sexual practices and identities that exist. In the twentieth century, sexologists acknowledged sexual diversity as normal. Political legitimacy for homosexual and sexual diversity grew out of organized demonstrations, parades, and political pressure from gay, lesbian, and LGBTQ+ groups.
43
How has heteronormativity been enforced globally?
Heteronormativity has been enforced by societies that have often forbidden non-heteronormative behaviors. Despite the existence of transgender, transsexual, bisexual, homosexual, and asexual people throughout history, nearly 80 countries still have laws against homosexuality. However, there have been gains, such as the legalization of same-sex marriage in 36 countries, with some others allowing it in specific jurisdictions.
44
homophobia
Opposition to homosexuality is often expressed as homophobia (fear of homosexuals). * Some people resort to violence to enforce conformity and punish deviance. * Anti‐gay violence is a broad cultural problem with several sources.
45
define gender
refers to the socially constructed expectations associated with a given sex category.
46
legal system failures
Sexual assault cases face high attrition rates in the justice system. Of over 93,000 cases reported from 2009 to 2014, fewer than 5% resulted in a prison sentence. Reasons include: 1. Police dismissing cases as "unfounded." 2. Defense attorneys undermining victim credibility. 3. Judicial bias (e.g., victim-blaming in court). 4. Lenient sentencing, with fewer jail terms for sexual assault than physical assault. The Time’s Up movement seeks legal reforms to address these failures.