Chapter 11 - The Years of Childhood

Question 1

define motor development

Answer 1

motor development refers to the progression of muscular coordination.

basic motor skills:
-grasping and reaching for objects
-manipulating objects
-sitting up
-crawling
-walking
-running

Question 2

infants & walking

Answer 2

-walking is typically mastered at around 12 months of age
-during free play, infants average 2,368 steps and 17 falls per hour
-data suggests that infants may walk more than 14,000 steps per day - about the length of 46 football fields!
-walking improves very rapidly due to high activity levels

Question 3

physical growth during early motor development

Answer 3

-growing during infancy is rapid but uneven
-long periods of no growth are followed by sudden growth spurts
-growth spurts are often accompanied by restlessness, irritability, and increased sleep

Question 4

what does newer research suggest about the role of infants in motor development?

Answer 4

-infants are active agents inter motor development.
-motor development is driven by their exploration and need to master tasks (e.g., grasping, viewing surrounding).
-it’s not solely a passive process tied to maturation.

Question 5

define maturation

Answer 5

maturation is the development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint.

Question 6

define developmental norms

Answer 6

developmental norms indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities.

Question 7

why should parents not worry if their child doesn’t meet developmental norms exactly?

Answer 7

-norms are group averages, not strict rules.
-variation is normal - many healthy children reach milestones earlier or later than the median.

Question 8

cultural variations in motor development

Answer 8

-cultural practices can accelerate or delay motor milestones.
-Kipsigis infants (Kenya) begin to walk about 1 month earlier than North American infants due to early training.
-Aché children (Paraguay) experience ~1 year delay for walking, due to safety concerns resulting in mothers carrying their babies virtually everywhere.

Question 9

what do cross-cultural studies suggest about the role of maturation in motor development?

Answer 9

-environmental factors cam accelerate or slow down early motor development.
-however, the similarities across cultures in the sequence and timing of early motor development outweigh the differences - which suggests that early motor development depends to a considerable amount on maturation.

**later motor development is a different matter as children in different cultures acquire more specialized motor skills, some of which being unique to their culture.

Question 10

define temperament

Answer 10

refers to characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity.

**an infant’s temperament is evident very early in life.

Question 11

What did Thomas and Chess study?

Answer 11

they conducted a major longitudinal study on the development of temperament in children.

Question 12

what is a longitudinal design in developmental research?

Answer 12

it involves observing the same group of participants repeatedly over a period of time.

Question 13

what is a cross-sectional design in developmental research?

Answer 13

it involves comparing different age groups at a single point in time.

Question 14

pros and cons of the cross-sectional design

Answer 14

advantage:
quicker and cheaper to conduct

disadvantage:
results may be affected by cohort effects

**cohort effects: differences between age groups caused by growing up in different historical contexts, not by development.

Question 15

pros and cons of longitudinal designs

Answer 15

advantage:
more sensitive to actual developmental changes

disadvantage:
participant dropout may skew results over time

Question 16

when is temperamental individuality well-established, according to Thomas and Chess?

Answer 16

by the time an infant is 2 to 3 months old

Question 17

what are the three basic styles of temperament identified by Thomas and Chess?

Answer 17

easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult

Question 18

describe easy children (~40%)

Answer 18

happy, regular in sleeping/eating, adaptable, and not easily upset

Question 19

describe slow-to-warm-up children (~15%)

Answer 19

less cheerful, irregular in routines, slow to adapt, moderately reactive.

Question 20

describe difficult children (~10%)

Answer 20

glum, irregular in routines, resistant to change, and irritable.

Question 21

what percentage of children did not fit clearly into one temperament category?

Answer 21

35% showed mixed temperamental traits.

Question 22

how stable is temperament over time, according to the study?

Answer 22

temperament is generally stable, though some basic changes occur.

Question 23

what long-term pattern was observed in difficult children?

Answer 23

they developed more emotional problems requiring counselling.

Question 24

what influences individual differences in temperament?

Answer 24

heredity plays a large role.

Question 25

is temperament changeable?

Answer 25

yes, while it is generally stable, it is not unchangeable.

Question 26

what cultural difference in temperament was noted?

Answer 26

uninhibited temperament is more common in Chinese children than in North America children.

Question 27

define attachment

Answer 27

attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers.

Question 28

when do infants typically show a preference for their mother?

Answer 28

around 6-8 months of age.

Question 29

define separation anxiety

Answer 29

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.

Question 30

when does separation anxiety typically peak?

Answer 30

around 14-18 months *and then begins to decline

Question 31

misconception: a strong attachment relationship depends on infant-mother bonding during the first few hours after birth.

Answer 31

reality: bonding immediately after birth can be a magical moment for mothers and should be encouraged for their sake. but there is no empirical evidence that this practice leads to healthier attachment relationships in the long run.

Question 32

what was the behaviourist explanation for attachment?

Answer 32

infants become attached to mothers because they are associated with feeding (a reinforcement event)

Question 33

how did Harry Harlow challenge behaviourist views of attachment?

Answer 33

his studies showed that infant monkeys preferred cloth mothers providing comfort over wire mothers providing food.

Question 34

what did John Bowlby propose about attachment?

Answer 34

attachment has a biological basis; infants are programmed to elicit protective responses from adults.

Question 35

how does bowlby's theory reflect evolutionary influences?

Answer 35

attachment enhances infant survival and helps ensure parental investment in offspring

Question 36

what is the strange situation procedure?

Answer 36

a lab method by Ainsworth in which infants are exposed to a series of eight separation and reunion episodes to assess the quality of their attachment.

Question 37

What are the 3 patterns of infant attachment identified by Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978)? What is the 4th category added years later by other researchers?

Answer 37

1 - secure attachment 2 - anxious-ambivalent attachment 3- avoidant attachment 4 - disorganized-disoriented attachment

Question 38

secure attachment

Answer 38

infant explores/plays with caregiver present, upset when she leaves, and comforted when she returns.

Question 39

anxious-ambivalent attachment

Answer 39

infant is anxious with mother present, highly distressed when she leaves, and not comforted by her return.

Question 40

avoidant attachment

Answer 40

infant shows little contact with mother and is not distressed when she leaves.

Question 41

disorganized-disoriented attachment

Answer 41

infant appears confused, unsure whether to approach or avoid caregiver.

Question 42

what factor most strongly influences the development of secure attachment?

Answer 42

maternal sensitivity and responsiveness *the two other factors may be mothers' psychological health and the quality of their marital/couples relationship.

Question 43

what are some long-term outcomes of secure attachment in early childhood?

Answer 43

better self-esteem, social competence, emotional regulation, and academic performance.

Question 44

is attachment universal across cultures?

Answer 44

yes, though there are some modest cultural variations in attachment patterns.

Question 45

what can undermine secure attachment in some cultures?

Answer 45

dire economic conditions that limit parental sensitivity.

Question 46

who proposed a at sage theory of personality development the spans the entire lifespan?

Answer 46

Erik Erikson.

Question 47

How does Erikson's theory differ from Freud's theory of personality development?

Answer 47

Freud believed personality is set by age 5; Erikson argued that personality evolves across the entire lifespan.

Question 48

What is a developmental stage according to stage theories?

Answer 48

a stage is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established.

Question 49

what are the 3 key assumptions of stage theories?

Answer 49

1 - individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage 2 - progress through these stages is strongly related to age 3 - development is marked by major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behaviour

Question 50

in Erikson's theory, what is a psychological crisis?

Answer 50

a struggle between opposing traits in a specific stage that shapes personality

Question 51

Erikson's Stage 1

Answer 51

opposing tendencies: trust vs. mistrust ages: 1st year of life trust: consistent, reliable caregiving that meets the infant's basic needs leads to the development of an optimistic, trusting attitude toward the world. mistrust: if the infant's basic needs are taken care of poorly, a more distrusting, pessimistic personality may result.

Question 52

Erikson's Stage 2

Answer 52

opposing tendencies: autonomy vs. shame and doubt ages: ages 2 & 3 autonomy: encouraging self-care efforts like feeding and dressing with supportive guidance fosters autonomy (the child develops a sense of self-sufficiency). shame and doubt: if parents are never satisfied with the child's efforts and there are constant parent-child conflicts, the child may develop a sense of personal shame and self-doubt.

Question 53

Erikson's Stage 3

Answer 53

opposing tendencies: initiative vs. guilt ages: ~ages 3-6 initiative: children experiment and take initiatives that may sometimes conflict with their parents' rules. parents need to support their children's emerging independence while maintaining appropriate controls. ideally, children will retain their sense of initiative while learning to respect the rights and privileges of other family members. guilt: overcontrolling parents may begin to install feelings of guilt, and self-esteem may suffer.

Question 54

Erikson's Stage 4

Answer 54

opposing tendencies: industry vs. inferiority ages: 6 through puberty industry: children face the challenge of learning to function socially, beyond the family to the broader social realm of the neighbourhood and school. children who are able to function effectively in this less nurturant social sphere where productivity is highly valued should learn to value achievement and to take pride in accomplishment, resulting in a sense of competence. inferiority: children can develop a sense of inferiority when they experience repeated failure or struggle to meet expectations in school or social settings, when their efforts are not recognized or valued, if they receive excessive criticism or lack encouragement Fromm parents, teachers, or peers, and if they compare themselves unfavourably to others, causing them to doubt their abilities.

Question 55

what are two criticisms of Erikson's theory?

Answer 55

1 - heavy reliance on case studies 2 - lacks explanation for individual personality differences

Question 56

define cognitive development

Answer 56

refers to transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving.

Question 57

who dominated cognitive development research in the 20th century?

Answer 57

Jean Piaget

Question 58

What are the two key processes in Piaget's theory?

Answer 58

Assimilation and accommodation

Question 59

define assimilation

Answer 59

assimilation involves interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them. **a child who has learned to call four-legged pets "puppies" may apply this scheme the first time they encounter a cat.

Question 60

define accommodation

Answer 60

accommodation involves changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences. **a child who has learned to call four-legged pets "puppies" may apply this scheme the first time they encounter a cat (assimilation), but they will eventually discover that puppies and cats are different types of animals and make adjustments to their mental schemes (accommodation).

Question 61

what are Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development?

Answer 61

1 - sensorimotor (birth-2) 2 - preoperational (2-7) 3 - concrete operational (7-11) 4 - formal operational (11+)

Question 62

stage 1 - sensorimotor

Answer 62

-coordination of sensory input with motor actions improves -development of object permanence

Question 63

define object permanence

Answer 63

object permanence develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.

Question 64

stage 2 - preoperational

Answer 64

-use of mental images and symbolic thought improves -struggle with understanding conservation 3 flaws in the preoperational stage: -centration; focus on only one feature -irreversibility; can't mentally reverse actions -egocentrism; limited ability to take others' viewpoints *notable feature of egocentrism: animism - the belief that all things are living, just like oneself.

Question 65

define conservation

Answer 65

conservation is Piaget's term for the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance.

Question 66

stage 3 - concrete operational

Answer 66

-use of operations on tangible objects/events improves -reversibility and decentration -ability to handle hierarchal classification

Question 67

stage 4 - formal operational

Answer 67

-acquisition of abstract, systematic, logical, and reflective reasoning -capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning -any future changes are in degree, not kind.

Question 68

define hypothetic-deductive reasoning

Answer 68

ability to think abstractly and test out one's hypotheses.

Question 69

criticisms of Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development

Answer 69

-he underestimated young children's abilities (e.g., object permanence, symbolic thought, egocentrism). -stage mixing and gradual transitions have been seen, which devalue the idea of discrete stages. -he believed this theory to be universal, underestimating the role of cultural and social influences on development.

Question 70

Vygoysky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 70

-he emphasizes social interaction (learning from parents, teachers, etc.,) and culture over individual discovery -viewed language as central to cognitive development (e.g., private speech)

Question 71

what is 'private speech', according to Vygotsky?

Answer 71

preschool children talk aloud to themselves a lot as they go about their activities. Vygotsky argued that children use this private speech to plan their strategies, regulate their actions, and accomplish their goals. as children grow older, this private speech is internalized and becomes the normal verbal dialogue that people have with themselves as they go about their business. thus, language increasingly serves as the foundation for youngsters’ cognitive processes.

Question 72

what is the zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Answer 72

the ZPD is the gap between what a leaner can accomplish alone and what they can achieve with guidance from more skilled partners.

Question 73

What is 'scaffolding'? according to Vygotsky?

Answer 73

scaffolding occurs when the assistance provided to a child is adjusted as learning progresses. *typically, less and less help is provided as a child’s competence on a task increases.

Question 74

what do nativists believe about human cognition?

Answer 74

that humans are pre-wired to understand certain concepts.

Question 75

what do evolutionary theorists believe about pre-wiring?

Answer 75

that it is the result of natural selection. evolutionary theorists focus on 'why' we are pre-wired and its adaptive significance, while nativists focus on 'what' is pre-wired.

Question 76

what is a 'critical period' in development?

Answer 76

a limited time when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences. **the term is traditionally used to suggest that an ability must be developed within the timespan, because it will not be possible to acquire it later.

Question 77

sensitive period

Answer 77

the term sensitive period suggests an optimal period for acquisition but one that does not obviate acquisition at a later point. **note: some educational models (e.g., Maria Montessori's) have incorporated the notion of sensitive periods as foundational.

Question 78

what might help us understand critical/sensitive periods better in the future?

Answer 78

brain-imaging technology

Question 79

what is 'theory of mind'?

Answer 79

understanding that others have separate thoughts, beliefs, and emotions.

Question 80

what does the false belief task test? (e.g., candy box filled with crayons)

Answer 80

whether a child understands that others can hold beliefs that differ from reality.

Question 81

how do most 3-year-olds respond in the false belief task (candy box)?

Answer 81

they fail - they assume that others must know what they know.

Question 82

how do most 4-year-olds respond in the false belief task?

Answer 82

they pass - they understand that others may hold false beliefs.

Question 83

what is "mind blindness"?

Answer 83

a term used by baron-cohen to describe theory of mind deficits in children with autism.

Question 84

Kohlberg's stage theory of developing moral reasoning

Answer 84

-most influential of many competing theories of moral development -focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour; Kohlberg was interested in the reasoning behind the participants' moral choices, not just the decisions themselves -uses a method of investigation

Question 85

how is morality defined in this context?

Answer 85

the ability to discern right rom wrong and behave accordingly

Question 86

how many stages are in Kohlberg's model?

Answer 86

3 levels, each with 2 sublevels= 6 stages total

Question 87

pre-conventional level (stages 1-2)

Answer 87

-morality is based on external authority (rewards/punishments -young children

Question 88

conventional level (stages 3-4)

Answer 88

-morality is based on social rules and approval; rules are internalized and seen as necessary and absolute

Question 89

post-conventional level (stages 5-6)

Answer 89

-morality is based on personal ethical principles; rules are flexible and can be questioned

Question 90

do people usually move through Kohlberg's 6 stages in order?

Answer 90

Yes, research supports the proposed sequence

Question 91

what's a major criticism of Kohlberg's model?

Answer 91

people often show reasoning from multiple stages at once

Question 92

what other moral aspects are often ignored in Kohlberg's model?

Answer 92

empathy, honesty, conscience, and emotional influences

Question 93

what role do emotions play in moral judgement according to Haidt (2007, 2013)?

Answer 93

moral judgements often begin as gut reactions (moral intuitions), followed by reasoning to justify their instant emotional reactions.

Question 94

according to modern theorists, what are the factors, other than reasoning, that determine morality?

Answer 94

emotional reactions, variations in temperament, and cultural background.