Chapter 8 - Problem Solving Flashcards
types of problems, barriers of problem solving, approaches to problem solving (23 cards)
define problem solving
active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable.
problems can be categorized into three basic classes:
1) Problems of inducing structure; require people to discover the relationships among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas.
2) Problem son arrangement; require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion. the parts can usually be arranged in many ways, but only one or a few of them form a solution.
3) Problems of transformation; require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal.
what are 4 common barriers to effective problem solving?
1 - a focus on irrelevant info
2 - functional fixedness
3 - mental set
4 - imposition of unnecessary constraints
how does irrelevant information interfere with problem solving?
it leads people to focus on data that doesn’t help solve the problem, causing confusion or incorrect solutions.
e.g., How many females are in the Thomson family? (found at beginning of section 8-2)
What did Sternberg (1986) point out about numerical information in problems?
People often assume that all numbers are relevant and try to use them without checking if they’re necessary.
define functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use.
how does functional fixedness interfere with problem solving (string problem example, figure 8.5)?
solving the string problem requires finding a novel use for one of the objects: the screwdriver. participants tend to think of the screwdriver in term soon its usual functions - turning screws and perhaps prying things open. they have a hard time thinking about the screwdriver as a weight.
According to McCaffrey (2012), what causes functional fixedness and how can it be addressed?
its caused by overlooking obscure features of problems; it can be reduced by decomposing problems into their constituent parts.
**in a study he found that this strategy led to enhanced problem solving.
define mental set
a mental set exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past.
How did Luchins’ (1942) water jar experiment demonstrate mental set?
participants kept using a learned formula even when a simpler method was available or when the strategy no longer worked.
how can mental sets hinder expert problem solvers, like chess players?
their first solution idea draws attention away from other options, limiting flexibility.
how do unnecessary constraints interfere with problem solving?
when people apply rules or limits that are not part of the problem, making it harder to find the solution.
e.g., the nine dot problem (figure 8.9)
define insight
insight occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while. the insight often feels like a sudden “aha!’.
are “aha” moments always reliable indicators of correct solutions?
not always. they’re associated with higher success rates but aren’t perfect predictors.
what are the 3 views on how insight occurs in problem solving?
1) special processing view; restructurings of problems that occur at an unconscious level.
2) business-as-usual view; normal, step-by-step, analytical thinking that occurs at a conscious level.
3) integrated view; both sudden, unconscious restructuring and gradual, conscious analytical thinking.
define trial and error (in problem solving)
trial and error involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works.
define heuristic
a heuristic is a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions.
**they are useful but they don’t guarantee success
examples in problem solving: forming subgoals, searching for analogies, and changing the representation of the problem.
what is a subgoal and how is it helpful in problem solving?
an intermediate step toward a solution. when you reach a subgoal, you’ve solved part of the problem.
**they help by breaking down complex tasks and allowing progress in steps; research shows they improve problem-solving speed.
why is recognizing analogies helpful in problem solving?
it allows transfer of successful strategies from one problem to another.
**this strategy depends on recognizing the similarity between two problems, which itself may be a challenging task.
what is an example of real-world problem-solving that depends on analogies?
a study recorded design engineers during their product development meetings and found that they came up with an average of 11 analogies per hour of their meetings.
what did yang et al. (2016) find in their study about analogies from nature?
in their study, giving participants analogies to solutions in nature before they attempted to solve challenging real-world problems, gave them a higher success rate than the control group that was not exposed to the analogies.
what is meant by “changing the representation of a problem”? In what ways can problems be represented?
re-framing the problem to gain a new perspective.
problems can be represented:
-verbally
-spatially
-mathematically
**when you fail to make progress with your initial representation, changing your representation is often a good strategy.
e.g., the bird and train problem (figure 8.15):
focusing on time instead of distance simplifies the problem; the trains meet in 1 hour, so the bird flies 100km.
define incubation effect
an incubation effect occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.
-depending on the nature of the problem, incubation periods may be measured in minutes, hours, or days.
-even a brief period of mind-wandering can sometimes function as an incubation period.
-sleep can also potentially serve as an incubation period fostering creative solutions.
