Chapter 14 Flashcards
Introduction
A middle-aged man walks the streets of Toronto with aluminum foil on the inside of his hat so Martians can’t read his mind. A young woman sits in her college classroom and hears the voice of God telling her she is a vile and disgusting person. You try to strike up a conversation with the supermarket bagger, but he stares at you vacantly and will say only one or two words in a flat, toneless voice. Each of these people may have schizophrenia, the startling disorder characterized by a broad spectrum of cognitive and emotional dysfunctions, including delusions and hallucina- tions, disorganized speech and behaviour, and inappropriate emotions.
Schizophrenia is a complex syndrome that inevitably has a devastating effect on the lives of the person affected and on family members. This disorder can disrupt a person’s perception, thought, speech, and movement—almost every aspect of daily functioning. And despite important advances in treatment, full recovery from schizophrenia is rare (Jääskeläinen et al., 2013). Obviously, this catastrophic disorder takes a tremendous emotional toll on everyone involved. In addition to the emotional costs, the financial drain is considerable. According to the Canadian National Outcomes Measurement Study in Schizophre- nia, the majority of people with schizophrenia in our country are unemployed and living in poverty (Smith et al., 2006). The annual cost to Canadian society is in the billions of dollars when factors such as hospitalization, disability payments, welfare payments, and lost wages are considered (British Columbia Schizophrenia Society, 2001; Goeree et al., 2005). Because schizophrenia is so widespread, affecting approximately 1 out of every 100 people at some point in their lives, and because its consequences are so severe, research on its causes and treatment has proliferated. Given the attention it has received, you would think that the question “What is schizophrenia?” would by now be answered easily. It is not.
In this chapter, we explore this intriguing disorder and review efforts to determine whether schizophrenia is distinct in itself or a combination of disorders. As noted a long time ago by Walter Heinrichs and his colleagues at York University, the search is complicated by the presence of subtypes: different presentations and combinations of symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorders of speech, cognition, emotion, and socialization (Heinrichs, 1993; Heinrichs & Awad, 1993; Heinrichs et al., 1997). In this chapter we discuss schizophrenia at length, along with other psychotic disorders.
PerSPeCTiVeS on The ConCePT of SChizoPhreniA
Early FigurEs in Diagnosing schizophrEnia
iDEntiFying symptoms
Early FigurEs in Diagnosing schizophrEnia
Toward the end of the 19th century, German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1899) provided what stands today as the most endur- ing description and categorization of schizophrenia. Two of Kraepelin’s accomplishments are especially important. First, he combined several symptoms of insanity that had usually been viewed as reflecting separate and distinct disorders: catatonia (alternating immobility and excited agitation), hebephrenia (silly and immature emotionality), and paranoia (delusions of gran- deur or persecution). Kraepelin thought these symptoms shared similar underlying features and included them under the Latin term dementia praecox. Although the clinical manifestation might differ from person to person, Kraepelin believed an early onset at the heart of each disorder ultimately develops into “mental weakness.”
In a second important contribution, Kraepelin (1898) distin- guished dementia praecox from manic-depressive illness (bipolar disorder). For people with dementia praecox, an early age of onset and a poor outcome were characteristic; in contrast, these patterns were not essential to manic depression. Kraepelin also noted the numerous symptoms in people with dementia praecox, including hallucinations, delusions, negativism, and stereotyped behaviour.
A second major figure in the history of schizophrenia was Kraepelin’s contemporary, Eugen Bleuler (1908), a Swiss psychi- atrist who introduced the term schizophrenia. The label was significant because it signalled Bleuler’s departure from Kraepe- lin on what he thought was the core problem. “Schizophrenia,” which comes from the combination of the Greek words for “split” (skhizein) and “mind” (phren), reflected Bleuler’s belief that underlying all the unusual behaviours shown by people with this disorder was an associative splitting of the basic functions of personality. This concept emphasized the “breaking of associative threads,” or the destruction of the forces that connect one function to the next. Furthermore, Bleuler believed that difficulty keeping a consistent train of thought, characteristic of all persons with this disorder, led to the many and diverse symptoms they displayed. Whereas Kraepelin focused on early onset and poor outcomes, Bleuler highlighted what he believed to be the universal underlying problem. Unfortu- nately, the concept of “split mind” inspired the common but incorrect use of the term schizo- phrenia to mean split or multi- ple personality.
iDEntiFying symptoms
What is schizophrenia? As you read about disorders in this book, you have learned that a particular behaviour, way of thinking, or emotion usually defines or is characteristic of each disorder. For example, depression always includes feelings of sadness, and panic disorder is always accompanied by intense feelings of anxiety. Surprisingly, this isn’t the case for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is actually a number of behaviours or symptoms that aren’t neces- sarily shared by all the people who are given this diagnosis.
Despite significant variations, researchers have identified clus- ters of symptoms that make up the disorder of schizophrenia. Later, we describe these very dramatic symptoms, such as seeing or hearing things that others do not (hallucinations) or having beliefs that are unrealistic, bizarre, and not shared by others in the same culture (delusions). But first, consider the following case of an individual who had an intense but relatively rare short-term episode of psychotic behaviour.
What caused Arthur to act so strangely? Was it being laid off from his job? Was it the death of his father? Was it a genetic predis- position to have schizophrenia or another disorder that kicked in during a period of stress? Unfortunately, we will never know exactly what happened to Arthur to make him behave so bizarrely and then recover so quickly and completely. Research that we discuss next may shed some light on schizophrenia and related disorders and potentially help other Arthurs and their families.
CliniCAl DeSCriPTion
The case of Arthur shows the range of problems experienced by people with schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. The term psychosis has been used to characterize many unusual behav- iours, although in its strictest sense it usually involves delusions (irrational beliefs) and hallucinations (sensory experiences in the absence of external events). Schizophrenia is one of the disorders that involves psychosis, in which there is loss of contact with reality; we describe other disorders involving psychosis in more detail later.
Schizophrenia can affect all the functions we rely on each day. Before we describe the symptoms, it is important to look care- fully at the specific characteristics of people who exhibit these behaviours, partly because we constantly see distorted images of people with schizophrenia. Headlines such as “Ex-Mental Patient Kills Family” falsely imply that everyone with schizophrenia is dangerous and violent. A Québec survey found that the majority of respondents thought that people with schizophrenia were dangerous or violent (Stip et al., 2001). But statistics show other- wise. A Canadian study examined nearly 700 cases from a foren- sic hospital and found that people with a schizophrenia diagnosis were far less likely to commit future violent crimes than those with a history of violent crime but no schizophrenia diagnosis. Nonetheless, media portrayals continue to frequently depict people with schizophrenia as violent. Like mistakenly assuming that “schizophrenia” means “split personal- ity,” the popular press also misrepresents people who experience these debilitating disorders.
Schizophrenia spectrum disorder constitutes the group of diag- noses we cover in this chapter, as recognized by those in the field of schizophrenia. In fact, Eugen Bleuler identified the different variants that were all included within this spectrum. (Ritsner & Gottesman, 2011). Previous editions of the DSM struggled with this concept in its varied presentations over the years, and, as we describe in this chapter, the DSM-5 currently includes schizophre- nia as well as other related psychotic disorders that fall under this heading (including schizophreniform, schizoaffective, delusional, and brief psychotic disorders). In addition, a personality disorder (schizotypal personality disorder, discussed in Chapter 13) also falls under this umbrella category of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. All these difficulties seem to share features of extreme reality distortion (e.g., hallucinations and delusions). Later, we discuss the symptoms the person experiences during the disorder (active-phase symptoms), the course of the disorder, and the spec- trum of disorders included in this category.
Mental health workers typically distinguish between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. A third dimension, disorganized symptoms, also appears to be an important aspect of the disorder. Positive symptoms generally refer to symptoms around distorted reality. Negative symptoms involve deficits in normal behaviour in such areas as speech, affect, and motivation. Disorganized symptoms include rambling speech, erratic behav- iour, and inappropriate affect (Ho et al., 2003). A diagnosis of schizophrenia requires that two or more positive, negative, or disorganized symptoms be present for at least one month, with at least one of these symptoms including delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech (see DSM Table 14.1). The DSM-5 also includes a dimensional assessment that rates the severity of the individual’s symptoms on a 0–4 scale, with 0 indicating a symp- tom is not present, 1 indicating equivocal evidence (i.e., not sure), 2 indicating it is present but mild, 3 that it is present and moder- ate, and 4 that it is present and severe (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). A great deal of research has focused on the different symptoms of schizophrenia, each of which is described here in some detail.
Subtopics:
1. positivE symptoms
a. Delusions
b. hallucinations
- nEgativE symptoms
a. Avolition
b. Alogia
c. Anhedonia
d. Asociality
e. Affective Flattening - DisorganizED symptoms
a. Disorganized Speech
b. Inappropriate Affect and Disorganized Behaviour - othEr psychotic DisorDErs
a. Schizophreniform Disorder
b. Schizoaffective Disorder
c. Delusional Disorder
d. Brief Psychotic Disorder
e. Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome
positivE symptoms
We next describe the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, which are the more obvious signs of psychosis. These include the disturbing experiences of delusions and hallucinations. Between 50 and 70 percent of people with schizophrenia experience hallu- cinations, delusions, or both
Delusions
A belief that would be seen by most members of a society as a misrepresentation of reality is called a disorder of thought content or a delusion. Because of its importance in schizophre- nia, delusion has been called “the basic characteristic of madness” (Jaspers, 1963). If, for example, you believe that squirrels really are aliens sent to Earth on a reconnaissance mission, you would be considered delusional. The media often portray people with schizophrenia as believing they are famous or important people (such as Napoleon or Jesus Christ). Arthur’s belief that he could end starvation for all the world’s children is also a delusion of grandeur (a mistaken belief that the person is famous or powerful) (Knowles et al., 2011).
A common delusion in people with schizophrenia is that others are out to get them. Called delusions of persecution, these beliefs can be most disturbing. One of us worked with a
world-class cyclist who was on her way to
making the Olympic team. Tragically, however,
she believed other competitors were determined
to sabotage her efforts, which forced her to stop
riding for years. She believed that opponents
would spray her bicycle with chemicals that
would take her strength away and that they
would slow her down by putting small pebbles in
the road that only she would ride over. These
thoughts created a great deal of anxiety, and she
refused even to go near her bicycle for some
time.
Other more unusual delusions include Cotard’s syndrome, in which the person believes a part of his or her body (e.g., the brain) has changed in some impossible way, and Capgras
syndrome, in which the person believes someone he or she knows has been replaced by a double (Black & Andreasen, 1999). An example of a celebrity who suffered from Capgras syndrome was the tragic case of comedian Tony Rosato, former star of SCTV and Saturday Night Live (Brean, 2007; Freed, 2007). Rosato was arrested in 2005 on charges of criminal harassment of his wife after repeatedly complaining to police that his wife, Leah, and their infant daughter had gone missing and had been replaced by imposters (Brean, 2007; Freed, 2007).
Why do delusions persist in the face of contradictory infor- mation? One intriguing possibility is that delusions may serve a purpose for people with schizophrenia who are otherwise quite upset by the changes taking place within themselves. For exam- ple, Roberts (1991) studied 17 people who had elaborate delu- sions about themselves and the world, and compared them with a matched group of people who had previously had delusions but were now improving. The individuals with current delusions expressed a much stronger sense of purpose and meaning in life and less depression, all of which seemed related to their delu- sional belief systems. Compare this with the opposite situation we discussed in Chapter 8, in which we found that people who were depressed seemed sadder but wiser. That delusions may serve an adaptive function is at present just a theory with little support, but it may help us understand the phenomenon and its effect on those who experience it
Hallucinations
Have you ever thought you heard someone call your name, only to discover that no one was there? Did you ever think you saw some- thing move by you, yet nothing did? We all have fleeting moments when we think we see or hear something that isn’t there. For many people with schizophrenia, however, these perceptions feel very real and occur on a regular basis. The experience of sensory events without any input from the surrounding environment is called a hallucination (Fischer et al., 2004). The case of David illustrates the phenomena of hallucinations and other disorders of thought that are common among people with schizophrenia.
David’s conversational speech resembled a ball rolling down a rocky hill. Like an accelerating object, his speech gained momen- tum the longer he went on and, as if bouncing off obstacles, the topics almost always went in unpredictable directions. If he continued for too long, he often became agitated and spoke of harming others. David also said that his uncle’s voice spoke to him repeatedly. He heard other voices also, but he couldn’t iden- tify them or tell what they said. We return to David’s case later in this chapter when we discuss causes and treatments.
Hallucinations can involve any of the senses, although hearing things that aren’t there, or auditory hallucination, is the most common form experienced by people with schizophrenia (Liddle, 2012). David had frequent auditory hallucinations, usually of his uncle’s voice. When David heard a voice that belonged to his Uncle Bill, he often couldn’t understand what his uncle was saying; on other occasions the voice was clearer. “He told me to turn off the TV. He said, ‘It’s too damn loud, turn it down, turn it down.’ Other times he talks about fishing. ‘Good day for fishing. Got to go fishing.’” You could tell when David was hearing voices. He was usually unoccupied, and he sat and smiled as if listening to someone next to him, but no one was there. This behaviour is consistent with research, which suggests that people tend to experience hallucinations more frequently when they are unoccupied or restricted from sensory input (e.g., Margo et al., 1981).
Exciting research on hallucinations uses sophisticated brain- imaging techniques to try to localize these phenomena in the brain. One theory of auditory verbal hallucinations states that people who are hallucinating are in fact not hearing the voices of others, but are listening to their own thoughts or their own voices and cannot recognize the difference. An alternative theory is that auditory verbal hallucinations arise from abnormal activation of the primary auditory cortex. A group of Montréal researchers (Ait Bentaleb et al., 2002) tested a woman with schizophrenia by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while she was experiencing her auditory verbal hallucinations and when she was listening to external speech; they compared her results with those of a matched control participant. They found that auditory verbal hallucinations were associated with increased metabolic activity in the left primary auditory cortex and in the right middle temporal gyrus. These results are consistent with both views regarding the origins of hallucinations (i.e., misinterpretation of inner speech and abnormal activation of the primary auditory cortex) and suggest that the two mechanisms are not necessarily mutually exclusive. More advanced imaging technology is allow- ing researchers to get a better view of just what is going on inside the brain during hallucinations and should help identify the role of the brain in the symptoms observed among people with schizo- phrenia (e.g., Silbersweig et al., 1995).
nEgativE symptoms
In contrast to the active presentations that characterize the posi- tive symptoms of schizophrenia, the negative symptoms usually indicate the absence or insufficiency
of normal behaviour. They include
emotional and social withdrawal, apathy, and poverty of thought or speech. Approximately, 25 percent of people with schizophrenia display these symptoms
Avolition
Combining the prefix a, meaning “without,” and volition, which means
“an act of willing, choosing, or decid- ing,” avolition is the inability to initi-
ate and persist in activities. People with this symptom (also referred to as apathy) show little interest in perform- ing even the most basic daily func- tions, including those associated with personal hygiene.
A study at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health in Toronto examined the level of avolition in 28 patients with schizo- phrenia and its relationship to other symptoms of schizophrenia and to treatment outcome. Levels of avolition were significantly higher in the patients with schizophrenia than in a matched group of participants without schizophrenia. Avolition was not related to positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Unexpectedly, avolition was not related to negative symptoms of schizophrenia other than emotional withdrawal. Finally, avolition was more highly associated with poor outcome than were other schizophrenia symptoms— positive or negative
Alogia
Derived from the combination of a (“without”) and logos (“words”), alogia refers to the relative absence of speech. A person with alogia may respond to questions with very brief replies that have little content and may appear uninterested in the conversation. For example, to the question, “Do you have any children?” most parents might reply, “Oh, yes, I have two beauti- ful children: a boy and a girl. My son is six and my daughter is twelve.” In the following exchange, someone with alogia responds to the same question:
- saying yes all the time to every question
Such deficiency in communication is believed to reflect a negative thought disorder rather than inadequate communication skills. Some researchers, for example, suggest that people with alogia may have trouble finding the right words to formulate their thoughts (Alpert et al., 1994). Sometimes alogia takes the form of delayed comments or slow responses to questions. Talking with individuals who manifest this symptom can be extremely frustrating, making you feel as if you are “pulling teeth” to get them to respond.
Anhedonia
A related symptom is called anhedonia, which derives from the word hedonic, pertaining to pleasure. Anhedonia is the presumed lack of pleasure experienced by some people with schizophrenia. Like some mood disorders, anhedonia signals an indifference to activities that would typically be considered pleasurable, includ- ing eating, social interactions, and sexual relations. Given the similarities of the negative schizophrenia symptom of anhedonia to symptoms of depression, some researchers, such as David Romney and Carmie Candido at the University of Calgary, have questioned the distinctiveness of anhedonia and the mood disor- ders (e.g., Candido & Romney, 2002; Romney & Candido, 2001). A study by Ashok Malla at the University of Western Ontario and his colleagues provides mixed evidence on this issue. On the one hand, Malla et al. (2002) found a strong correlation between depression and a negative symptoms factor involving both anhe- donia and avolition in a large sample of patients with schizophre- nia. On the other hand, they also found that negative symptoms were present at a relatively high rate even after excluding the influence of depression. Regardless of the dependence or inde- pendence from depression, anhedonia is clinically meaningful in that it relates to a delay in seeking treatment for schizophrenia (Malla et al., 2002).
Asociality
This symptom may seem very similar to avolition or related to anhedonia. Asociality (a meaning “without” and social meaning “relating to society or its organization”), however, has been recognized as a separate symptom of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. This symptom captures a lack of interest in social inter- actions (APA, 2013). Unfortunately, this symptom can also result from or be worsened by limited opportunities to interact with others, particularly for severely ill patients (Reddy et al., 2016).
Research by University of Toronto researcher Jean Addington and her colleagues suggests that patients who have poor social or interpersonal functioning before the development of their psycho- sis also have greater levels of negative symptoms and greater social impairment at the time of their admission to a schizophre- nia treatment program (Addington et al., 2003). In a review of the literature, Peter Liddle at the University of British Columbia found that the best predictor of asociality in people with schizo- phrenia is chronic cognitive impairment, suggesting that difficul- ties in processing information may contribute significantly to the social skills deficits and other social difficulties displayed by many patients (Liddle, 2000).
Affective Flattening
Imagine that people wore masks at all times: you could commu- nicate with them but you wouldn’t be able to see their emotional reactions. Approximately, two-thirds of the people with schizo- phrenia exhibit what is called flat affect (Simonsen et al., 2012). They are similar to people wearing masks because they do not show emotions when you would normally expect them to. They may stare at you vacantly, speak in a flat and toneless manner, and seem unaffected by things going on around them. However, although they do not react openly to emotional situations, they may still be experiencing emotions.
Berenbaum and Oltmanns (1992) compared people with schizophrenia who had flat (or blunted) affect with those who did not. The two groups were shown clips from films selected to create emotional reactions in the viewer. Berenbaum and Oltmanns found that the people with flat affect showed little change in facial expression, although they reported experiencing the appropriate emotions. The authors concluded that the flat affect in schizophrenia may represent difficulty expressing emotion, not a lack of feeling. In a more recent study, Montréal researchers Fahim et al. (2005) exposed schizophrenia patients with and without flat affect to negative and neutral images. Like the Berenbaum and Oltmanns findings, both groups experienced unpleasant emotions in response to the negative pictures; however, the negative emotions experienced were less intense in the patients with flat affect (Fahim et al., 2005). More research is thus needed to determine if it is the expression of emotion, the experi- ence of emotion, or both, that is aberrant in schizophrenia patients suffering flat affect.
DisorganizED symptoms
Perhaps the least studied and therefore the least understood symp- toms of schizophrenia are referred to as the disorganized symptoms. These include a variety of erratic behaviours that affect speech, motor behaviour, and emotional reactions. The prevalence of these behaviours among those with schizophrenia is unclear.
Disorganized Speech
A conversation with someone who has schizophrenia can be particularly frustrating. If you want to understand what is bothering or upsetting this person, eliciting relevant information is especially difficult. For one thing, people with schizophrenia often lack insight, an awareness that they have a problem. In addition, they experience “associative splitting” (Bleuler, 1908) and “cognitive slippage” (Meehl, 1962). These phrases help describe the speech problems of people with schizophrenia: Sometimes they jump from topic to topic and at other times they talk illogically. The DSM-5 uses the term disorganized speech to describe such communication problems (Kerns & Berenbaum, 2002).
David didn’t really answer the question he was asked. This type of response is called tangentiality—that is, going off on a tangent instead of answering a specific question. David also abruptly changed the topic of conversation to unrelated areas, a behaviour that has been called loose association or derailment
Again, David didn’t answer the question. The therapist could not tell whether he didn’t understand the question, couldn’t focus his attention, or found it too difficult to talk about his uncle.
You can see why people spend a great deal of time trying to interpret all the hidden meanings behind this type of conver- sation. Unfortunately, however, such analyses have yet to provide us with useful information about the nature of schizophrenia or its treatment.
Inappropriate Affect and Disorganized Behaviour
Occasionally, people with schizophrenia display inappropriate affect, laughing or crying at improper times. Sometimes they exhibit bizarre behaviours, such as hoarding objects or acting in unusual ways in public. People with schizophrenia engage in several other “active” behaviours that are usually viewed as unusual. For example, catatonia is one of the most curious symp- toms in some individuals with schizophrenia; it involves motor dysfunctions that range from wild agitation to immobility. The DSM-5 now includes catatonia as a separate schizophrenia spec- trum disorder. On the active side of the continuum, some people pace excitedly or move their fingers or arms in stereotyped ways. At the other end of the extreme, people hold unusual postures, as if they are fearful of something terrible happening if they move (catatonic immobility). This manifestation can also involve waxy flexibility, or the tendency to keep their bodies and limbs in the position they are put in by someone else.
Again, to receive a diagnosis of schizophrenia, a person must display two or more of the major symptoms (i.e., delusions, hallu- cinations, disorganized speech, grossly abnormal psychomotor behaviour—including catatonia—or negative symptoms such as diminished emotional expression or avolition) for a significant portion of time for one month. At least one of the symptoms must include delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech. Depending on the combination of symptoms displayed, two
people could receive the same diagnosis but behave very differ- ently, one having marked hallucinations and delusions and the other displaying disorganized speech and some of the negative symptoms. Proper treatment depends on differentiating individu- als in terms of their varying symptoms.
othEr psychotic DisorDErs
The psychotic behaviours of some individuals do not fit neatly under the heading of schizophrenia as we have just described. Several other categories of disorders depict these significant variations.
Schizophreniform Disorder
Some people experience the symptoms of schizophrenia for a few months only; they can usually resume normal lives. The symp- toms sometimes disappear as the result of successful treatment, but often for unknown reasons. The label schizophreniform disorder classifies these symptoms, but because relatively few studies are available on this disorder, data on important aspects of it are sparse. It appears, however, that the lifetime prevalence is approximately 0.2 percent (Erlich et al., 2014). The DSM-5 diag- nostic criteria for schizophreniform disorder (see DSM Table 14.2) include onset of psychotic symptoms within four weeks of the first noticeable change in usual behaviour, confusion at the height of the psychotic episode, good premorbid social and occupational functioning, and the absence of blunted or flat affect