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Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are models of psychopathology?

A

-framework/set of basic assumptions that guide ways of viewing, thinking, and explaining what we see in the world
-guides the definition, examination, and treatment of mental disorders

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2
Q

What are the Major Models/Paradigms (one-dimensional models)?

A

-biological
-cognitive-behavioural
-psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
-humanistic

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3
Q

What is the problem with one-dimensional perspectives?

A

-each model has bias
-set up a false “either-or” dichotomy between accepting one explanation or another
-neglect the possibility that a variety of factors contribute to the development of mental disorders
-fail to recognize the reciprocal interactions of various factors

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4
Q

What is a Multipath Model?

A

-a model that provides an organizational framework for understanding the numerous influences on the development of mental disorders, the complexity of their interacting components, and the need to view disorders from a holistic framework

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5
Q

What are the assumptions of the multipath model?

A

-no one theoretical perspective is adequate to explain the development of mental disorders
-multiple pathways contribute to the development of any single disorder
-not all dimensions contribute equally
-the multipath model is integrative and interactive

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6
Q

How do dimensions work?

A

-each dimension may include variety of explanations
-interactions within and between dimensions
-different combinations within/across dimensions can influence disorders
-same factors may cause different disorders (genetic predisposition

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7
Q

What are the aspects of Dimension 1: Biological Factors?

A

-genetics; brain anatomy; biochemical imbalances; central nervous system functioning; autonomic nervous system reactivity

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8
Q

What are the assumptions of the Biological Factor?

A

-our characteristics are embedded in genetic material
-thoughts/ emotions/ behaviours involve/change biological processes
-mental disorders are associated with inherited biological vulnerability and/or brain abnormality
-medications and other biological interventions influence various biological processes in the brain

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9
Q

What are the Cerebral and Prefrontal Cortex responsible for?

A

-cerebral cortex: advanced cognitive functions
-prefrontal cortex: attention, behaviour, emotions

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10
Q

What is the Limbic System and its parts responsible for?

A

-limbic system: emotions, decision making, memories
–thalamus: “relay station” transmits nerve impulses throughout brain
–hypothalamus: regulates bodily drives through hormone release
–hippocampus: learning and memory
–amygdala: involves experiencing/expressing emotions and motivation

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11
Q

When is the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activated?

A

-activated under conditions of stress or emotional arousal
-dysregulation of HPA result in abnormal behaviours

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12
Q

What are the brain abnormalities that result in abnormal behaviours?

A

-abnormal functioning within brain regions; or
-structural differences in brain regions (Phineas Gage)

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13
Q

What is the basic structure of a neuron?

A

-dendrites: receive signals from other neurons
-cell body
-axons: send signals to other neurons
-synapse: gap between axon of sending neuron and dendrites of receiving neuron

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14
Q

What are neurotransmitters and their dysfunctions?

A

-chemicals involved in transmission of neural impulses
-dysfunction is: amount of NTs (too high or low); synapse deactivation mechanisms; receptor sensitivity (enzymes breaking down NTs too quickly or not at all)

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15
Q

What are the Major Neurotransmitters and their associated disorders?

A

-serotonin - OCD; Schizophrenia; mood disorders
-dopamine - Schizophrenia; ADHD; mood disorders; Parkinson’s
-Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) - anxiety disorders; ADHD
-Norepinephrine - anxiety disorders; sleep disorders

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16
Q

What is the function of serotonin?

A

-inhibitory effects regulate temperature, mood, appetite, and sleep
-reduced serotonin can increase impulsive behaviour and aggression

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17
Q

What is the function of dopamine?

A

-influences motivation and reward-seeking behaviours;
-regulates movement, emotional responses, attention, and planning;
-has excitatory and inhibitory effects

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18
Q

What is the function of GABA?

A

-major inhibitory NT, regulation of mood, arousal, behaviour, calm nerves

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19
Q

What is the function of norepinephrine?

A

-regulation of attention, arousal and concentration, dreaming, and moods
-as a hormone, influences physiological reactions related to stress response

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20
Q

What is Heredity?

A

-genetic transmission of traits
–heredity plays a role in most mental disorders
–most forms of abnormal behaviour are polygenic (multiple genes are involved)

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21
Q

What is Genotype?

A

-genetic material, unobservable, fixed at birth, inherited

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22
Q

What is Phenotype?

A

-observable trait (eye colour, behaviour, mental disorder)
-changes over time
-product of interaction between genotype and environment

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23
Q

What is gene expression?

A

-the process by which information encoded in a gene is translated into a phenotype
–genes can be “turned on” or “turned off”

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24
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

-field of biological research focused on understanding how environmental factors influence gene expression

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25
What are the biology-based treatments?
-psychotropic medications -electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) -psychosurgery -brain stimulation treatments
26
What do Psychotropic medications do?
-do not cure mental disorders, they help alleviate symptoms
27
What are the positive effects of psychotropic medications?
-improves the lives of many people with mental illness -stabilizing symptoms of mental health disorders -individuals are better able to participate in other forms of treatment
28
What are the limitations of psychotropic medications?
-when medication ends the symptoms return -side effects and possible drug-drug interactions -limited focus on ethnic or gender group differences in physiological response to medication (trial & error)
29
What is ECT?
-induce small seizures with electricity or magnetism -reserved for those not responding to other treatments
30
What is Psychosurgery?
-removing parts of the brain -very uncommon today
31
What is brain stimulation treatments?
-repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
32
What are the critiques of biological models?
-ignores other important factors (culture, stress, social support) -fails to consider individual's unique circumstances -unknown how biological factors cause disorders -promote notion that mental illnesses are predetermined -caution against reductionism (simplification of a phenomenon to its basic elements)
33
What is the impact of biological models?
-advances in psychopharmacology -prevention/treatment of mental disorders should be possible by altering bodily functioning -evidence that many drugs can dramatically alter the severity and course of certain mental disorders
34
What are the aspects of Dimension 2: Psychological Factors?
-personality; cognition; emotions; learning; stress-coping; self-esteem; self-efficacy; values; developmental history
35
What are the four major perspectives?
-psychoanalytic/ psychodynamic -behavioural -cognitive -humanistic-existential
36
What is the difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic models?
-psychoanalytic theory - Freud's original theory -psychodynamic theories - post-Freudian theories
37
What are Freud's 3 components of psyche and intrapsychic conflicts?
-Id: pleasure principle -Ego: reality principle -Superego: "conscience", moral principal -intrapsychic conflicts: psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the individual (results in anxiety)
38
What are Freud's defense mechanisms?
-defense mechanisms are Ego's way of reducing anxiety by consciously distorting reality -displacement; repression; projection; rationalization; regression; sublimation; denial; reaction formation
39
What are contemporary psychodynamic theories?
-recognize the importanc eof unconscious -importance of childhood experiences, can shape adult personality (agrees w/ Freud) -agrees use of defense mechanisms to control anxiety and stress -Bowlby and Mahler proposed: need to be loves, accepted, and emotionally supported is of primary importance in childhood
40
What are the therapies based on psychodynamic?
-Psychoanalysis: uncover material blocked from consciousness -interpersonal psychotherapy: links childhood experiences with current relational patterns -brief psychodynamic therapy: focus on past relationships issues and how they affect current emotional and relationship experiences
41
What are the critiques of psychodynamic models?
low empirical support (Freud's ideas) -development doesn't stop in childhood -people often remember traumatic events; not repressed -fails to address cultural and social influence (focus on internal impulses) -may not be useful with certain people (less talkative) -far fewer treatment outcome studies compared to other models
42
What are Behavioural Models?
-abnormal behaviours are learned behaviours -learning occurs through: classical conditioning (Pavlov; stimulus/response); operant conditioning (Skinner; reinforcement/consequences); modeling/observational learning (Bandura)
43
What is Modeling/Observational Learning?
-learning through observation alone, without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement -observe rewards/punishments received by others -ex: Bobo doll experiment (Bandura)
44
What are some examples of observational learning in psychology?
-anxiety (phobias) -substance use -aggression/misconduct (domestic violence)
45
What are Behavioural Therapies?
-exposure therapy: counterconditioning the fear response -behavioural parent management -behavioural classroom management -social skills training: assertiveness training (modelling; used for kids)
46
What are the critiques of behavioural models?
-often neglect inner determinants of behaviour (thoughts and emotions) -neglect the sociocultural context in which the behaviour occur
47
What are Cognitive Models?
-we are all active interpreters of a situation -focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behaviour
48
What is Albert Ellis' ABC Theory?
-A: activating event -B: Belief -C: emotional and behavioural consequence --emotional reactions are caused by irrational belief about a person/situation
49
What were Aaron Beck's views?
-psychological problems produced by negative views about the self, others, and the future -depression results from negative schemas (underlying representation that guides information processing) -cognitive therapy
50
What are the aspects of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)?
-learn to identify maladaptive thoughts -recognize thoughts, feelings, behaviours are connected (cognitive triangle) -gather evidence to support/refute negative thoughts -replace negative thoughts
51
What is the third-wave CBT like?
-also focus on cognitions and behaviours -instead of refuting irrational/negative thoughts, holds that nonreactive or nonjudgmental attention to emotions can reduce their power to create distress
52
What are the critiques of CB Models?
-reduce complex behaviours to simple learning or interpretations (dismisses biology) -doesn't address if problematic thoughts or depression comes first -cognitions are not observable phenomena -authority role of therapist: power to identify irrational beliefs may be intimidating
53
What is the impact of CB Models?
-strong evidence of its benefits in improving depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and schizophrenia (long-term; unlike meds)
54
What are humanistic Models?
-suggest that all humans strive to fulfill their potential for good (Maslow's hierarchy of needs) -mental disorders arise when this goal (self-actualization) is obstructed -acknowledge the role of free will
55
What were Carl Rogers' views?
-we have inherent tendency to strive toward the realization of one's full potential -anxiety occurs when there is discrepancies between self-perception and one's ideal self -client/person-centered therapy
56
What are the aspects of Client/person-centred therapy?
-unconditional positive regard -empathy -provides an accepting therapeutic environment to reactivate the potential for self-actualization
57
What is the Existential Perspective?
-focuses on universal challenges encountered by all humans -psychopathology stems from the avoidance of important life challenges -existential therapy
58
What is Existential Therapy?
-clients become aware of choices they have made (take responsibility) -consider ways in which their freedom is impaired -help people become intentional in directing their lives
59
What are the critiques of Humanistic-Existential Models?
-concepts are abstract/untestable -self-awareness doesn't always lead to change -inability to address those with severe disorders (schizophrenia; better for depression and anxiety) -dismiss cultural diversity/social factors (poverty, discrimination, etc.) -more effective for verbal, intelligent people
60
What is the impact of humanistic models?
-focus on human choice and growth -empathy and positive regard are important elements of therapy -Carl Rogers advocated for empirically evaluating therapy outcomes (originating field of psychotherapy research)
61
What are the aspects of Dimension 3: Social Factors?
-family -relationships -social support -belonging -love -marital status -community
62
What is the focus and assumptions of the Social-Relational dimension?
-focus: how other people influence our behaviours and emotions -assumptions: healthy relationships are important for human development and functioning; when relationships are dysfunctional or absent, individuals are more vulnerable to mental distress
63
What are the Social-Relational Treatments?
-Family Systems Model -Family therapy -Couples therapy -Group therapy
64
What is the Family Systems Model?
-assumes behaviour of one family member affects entire family system -mental illness reflects unhealthy family dynamics and poor communication -therapist must focus on family system, not just on individuals
65
What is the focus of Family Therapy?
-improving communication, restructuring family dynamic and relational patterns
66
What is the focus of Couple Therapy?
-helps couples understand and clarify their communication, needs, roles, and expectations
67
What is the focus of Group Therapy?
-individuals that share certain life stressors or mental disorders -allows participants to become involved in a social situation, develop communication skills, and feel less isolated
68
What are the critiques of Social-Relational Models?
-studies have generally not been rigorous in design -family systems models may have negative consequences (blaming parents) -cultural diversity is not adequately addressed
69
What are the aspects of Dimension 4: Sociocultural Factors?
-race -gender -sexual orientation -religion -socioeconomic status -ethnicity -culture
70
What factors does dimension 4 emphasize when explaining mental disorders?
-gender/sex -race/ethnicity -socioeconomic status -immigration/acculturation
71
What are Gender Factors and why are they present?
-higher prevalence of many mental health conditions among women Why: socialization processes; women may be subjected to more stress than men; increased risk of physical and sexual victimization; gender challenges are often accentuated for women of colour
72
What are some stressors associated with low Socioeconomic status (SES)?
-lower wage, unemployment, unstable unemployment -housing insecurity -food insecurity -limited access to health care --multilevel interventions are necessary to reduce the chronic environmental stressors
73
Were race and ethnicity considered in the past? What is being done now?
-early models criticized as being inaccurate, racist, and unsupported by scientific research --inferiority model --deficit model -increasing research on effectiveness of treatment for different cultural groups and development of culturally adapted treatments
74
What are the views of the Multicultural model?
-being culturally different is not deviant, pathological, or inferior -all behaviours should be considered from a cultural perspective -mental health difficulties are sometimes due to sociocultural stressors (economics, racism, etc.)
75
What is Acculturative stress?
-psychological, physical, and social pressures associated with moving to a new country
76
What are examples of stressors linked to immigration?
-adapt new culture (customs/norms) -hostile reception from government, public (racism & discrimination) -loss of social support -educational, language, and employment challenges -loss of status and a sense of powerlessness -acculturation conflicts between family members -fears surrounding possible deportation or separation of families
77
What are Sociocultural considerations in treatment?
-effects of discrimination, marginalization, and environmental adversities, family experiences should be considered in treatments -traditional therapies often do not consider the importance of other diversity issues, such as gender, disability, or sexual orientation
78
What are the critiques of multicultural models?
-critics see a disorder as a disorder regardless of culture (hallucinations) -relies heavily on case studies and ethnographic analyses, limited rigorous research (unable to draw definitive conclusions on causation)

PSYC 340 (13 decks)

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