Chapter 2 Flashcards
(41 cards)
Scientific method
The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding of behavior and other phenomena of interest.
Steps of scientific method
Consists of four main steps: (1) identifying the question of interest, (2) formulating an explanation, (3) carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation, and (4) communicating the findings.
Theories
Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest. They provide a framework for understanding the relationships among a set of otherwise unorganized facts or principles.
Hypothesis
Predication stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Hypotheses stem from theories; they help test the underlying soundness of theories.
Operational definition
The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed in an experiment.
Archival research
In archival research, existing data, such as census documents, college records, online databases, and newspaper articles, are examined to test a hypothesis.
Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis because someone else has already collected the basic data.
Archival research drawbacks
The use of existing data has several drawbacks. For one thing, the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly.
Naturalistic observation
In naturalistic observation, the investigator observes naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation. For example, a researcher investigating helping behavior might observe the kind of help given to victims in a high-crime area of a city.
The important point to remember about naturalistic observation is that the researcher simply records what occurs, making no modification in the situation that is being observed.
Naturalistic observation drawbacks
Although the advantage of naturalistic observation is obvious- we get a sample of what people do in their “natural habitat”- there is also an important drawback; the inability to control any of the factors of interest. For example, we might find so few naturally occurring instances of helping behavior that we would be unable to draw any conclusions. Because naturalistic observation prevents researchers from making changes in a situation, they must wait until the appropriate conditions occur. Furthermore, if people know they are being watched, they may alter their reactions and produce behavior that is not truly representative.
Survey research
In survey research, a sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (a population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
Survey methods have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample, researchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond.
Survey research drawbacks
Survey research has several potential pitfalls. For one thing, if the sample of people who are surveyed is not representative of the broader population of interest, the results of the survey will have little meaning. Consequently, researchers using surveys strive to obtain a random sample of the population in question.
In addition, survey respondents may not want to admit holding socially undesirable attitudes. Furthermore, people may not want to admit they engage in behaviors that they feel are somehow abnormal- a problem that plagues surveys of sexual behavior, because people are often reluctant to admit what they really do in private. Finally, in some cases, people may not even be consciously aware of what their true attitudes are or why they hold them.
Case Study
In contrast to a survey, in which many people are studied, a case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group.
Case studies often include psychological testing, a procedure in which a carefully designed set of questions is used to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group.
Case studies drawbacks
If the individuals examined are unique in certain ways, it is impossible to make valid generalizations to a larger population. Still, they sometimes lead the way to new theories and treatments for psychological disorders.
Variables
Variables are behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way. For example, in a study to determine whether the amount of studying makes a difference in test scores, the variables would be study time and test scores.
Correlational research
In correlational research, two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated.” The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables are represented by a mathematical statistic known as a correlation (or, more formally, a correlation coefficient), which can range from +1.0 to -1.0.
Positive correlation
Positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase.
For positive correlation, correlation would be indicated by a positive number, and the stronger the association, the closer the number would be to +1.0.
Negative correlation
Negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases.
No correlation
Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a correlation close to 0. For example, if we found a correlation of -.02 or +.03, it would indicate that there is virtually no association.
Correlation vs. causation
Finding that two variables are correlated does not mean that there is a causal relationship between them. The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes the other.
Correlational research drawbacks
The inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its use. There is, however, an alternative technique that does establish causality: the experiment.
Experiment
Carrying out experiments is the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships. In a formal experiment, the researcher investigates the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
In an experiment, then, the conditions are c rea ted and controlled by the researcher, who deliberately makes a change in those conditions in order to observe the effects of that change.
Experimental manipulation
The change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment is called the experimental manipulation. Experimental manipulations are used to detect relationships between different variables.
Treatment
Experimental research requires that the responses of at least two groups be compared. One group will receive some special treatment- the manipulation implemented by the experimenter- and another group will receive either no treatment or a different treatment.
Experimental group and control group
Any group that receives a treatment is called an experimental group; a group that receives no treatment is called a control group. (In some experiments there are multiple experimental and control groups, each of which is compared with another group.)
