Chapter 6

Question 1

Classical conditioning

Answer 1

Classical conditioning is one of a number of different types of learning that psychologists have identified, but a general definition encompasses them all: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (such as the experimenter’s footsteps) comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus (such as food) that naturally brings about the response.

Question 2

Learning

Answer 2

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience.

Question 3

Habituation

Answer 3

Infants exhibit a simple type of learning called habituation. Habituation is the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus. For example, young infants may initially show interest in a novel stimulus, such as a brightly colored toy, but they will soon lose interest if they see the same toy over and over again. (Adults exhibit habituation too: Newlyweds soon stop noticing that they are wearing a wedding ring.)
Habituation permits us to ignore things that have stopped providing new information.

Question 4

Neutral stimulus

Answer 4

A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response in which we are interested. In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell is a neutral stimulus.

Question 5

Unconditioned stimulus & unconditioned response

Answer 5

The response that is elicited from an unconditioned stimulus is called an unconditioned response. An unconditioned response (UCR) is a natural, innate response that occurs automatically and needs no training. Unconditioned responses are always brought about by the presence of unconditioned stimuli.

Question 6

Conditioned stimulus & conditioned response

Answer 6

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. A conditioned response (CR), is brought by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning.

Question 7

Classical conditioning & phobias

Answer 7

In extreme cases, classical conditioning can lead to the development of phobias, which are intense, irrational fears. For example, an insect phobia might develop in someone who is stung by a bee. The insect phobia might be so severe that the person refrains from leaving home.

Question 8

Extinction

Answer 8

Extinction occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
To produce extinction, one needs to end the association between conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli. Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 9

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 9

The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time with no further conditioning.

Question 10

Stimulus generalization

Answer 10

Stimulus generalization is the process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response. The greater the similarity between the two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization.
The conditioned response elicited by the new stimulus is usually not as intense as the original conditioned response, although the more similar the new stimulus is to the old one, the more similar the new response will be.

Question 11

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 11

Stimulus discrimination occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not. Stimulus discrimination provides the ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Question 12

Operant conditioning

Answer 12

Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. When we say that a response has been strengthened or weakened, we mean that it has been made more or less likely to occur regularly.
Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original behaviors are the natural, biological responses to the presence of stimulus such as food, water, or pain, operant conditioning applies to voluntary responses, which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome. The term operant emphasizes this point: The organism operates on an environment to produce a desirable result. Operant conditioning is at work when we learn that toiling industriously can bring about a raise or that studying hard results in good grades.

Question 13

Law of effect

Answer 13

Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Question 14

Reinforcement

Answer 14

Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Question 15

Reinforcer

Answer 15

A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.

Question 16

Primary reinforcer

Answer 16

A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s previous experience. Food for a hungry person, warmth for a cold person, and relief for a person in pain all would be classified as primary reinforcers.

Question 17

Secondary reinforcer

Answer 17

A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer. For instance, we know that money is valuable, because we have learned that it allows us to obtain other desirable objects, including primary reinforcers such as food and shelter.

Question 18

Positive reinforcer

Answer 18

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.

Question 19

Negative reinforcer

Answer 19

A negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.

Question 20

Punishment

Answer 20

Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases the probability that prior behavior will occur again.

Question 21

Positive punishment

Answer 21

Positive punishment weakens a response by applying an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 22

Negative punishment

Answer 22

Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant.

Question 23

Reinforcement vs punishment

Answer 23

Reinforcement increases the frequency of the behavior preceding it; punishment decreases the frequency of the behavior preceding it.

Question 24

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 24

Refers to the frequency and timing of reinforcement that follows desired behavior. Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs is said to be on a continuous reinforcement schedule; if it is reinforced some but not all the time, it is on a partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule.
Although learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement schedule, behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops when it is learned under a partial reinforcement schedule.
Partial reinforcement schedules (such as those provided by slot machines) maintain performance longer than do continuous reinforcement schedules (such as those established in candy vending machines) before extinction- the disappearance of the conditioned response- occurs.

Question 25

Fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 25

In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses.

Question 26

Variable-ratio schedule

Answer 26

In a variable-ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.

Question 27

Rate of response and fixed-interval schedule

Answer 27

Because a fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low. This is especially true in the period just after reinforcement, when the time before another reinforcement is relatively great.

Question 28

Rate of responses and variable-interval schedules

Answer 28

Variable-interval schedules, in general, are more likely to produce relatively steady rates of responding than are fixed-interval schedules, with responses that take longer to extinguish after reinforcement ends.

Question 29

Stimulus control training

Answer 29

The process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli is known as stimulus control training. In stimulus control training, a behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence.

Question 30

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 30

A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response.

Question 31

Shaping

Answer 31

Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. In shaping, you start by reinforcing any behavior that is at all similar to the behavior you want the person to learn. Later, you reinforce only responses that are closer to the behavior you ultimately want to teach. Finally, you reinforce only the desired response. Each step in shaping, then, moves only slightly beyond the previously learned behavior, permitting the person to link the new step to the behavior learned earlier.

Question 32

Processes that operate in both classical and operant conditioning

Answer 32

Extinction, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination.

Question 33

Cognitive learning theory

Answer 33

An approach viewed by some psychologists as learning in terms of the thought processes, or cognitions, that underlie it.

Question 34

Latent learning

Answer 34

In latent learning, a new behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. In short, latent learning occurs without reinforcement.

Question 35

Cognitive map

Answer 35

A mental representation of spatial locations and directions.

Question 36

Observational learning

Answer 36

A major part of human learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model. Because of its reliance on observation of others- a social phenomenon- this perspective is often referred to as a social cognitive approach to learning. Observational learning may have a genetic basis. The discovery of mirror neurons, neurons that fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior suggests that the capacity to imitate others may be innate.

Question 37

Relational learning style

Answer 37

People with a relational learning style master material best through understanding the "big picture" about something. They need to understand the complete picture of what they're studying before they understand its component parts.

Question 38

Analytical learning style

Answer 38

Those with an analytical learning style do best when they first analyze the various components underlying an object, phenomenon, or situation. By developing an understanding of the individual parts, they are best able to grasp the full picture.