Chapter 2

Question 1

Humans seek out and change their environments, and in turn and shape their development
Environments are easily altered and influenced by choices

Answer 1

Activity

Question 2

Development is shaped by forces outside of our control

Environment is not able to be influenced or altered

Answer 2

Passivity

Question 3

Development is a process with gradual change
Concrete or discrete “stages” or “steps” are not identified
Changes to a degree

Answer 3

Continuity

Question 4

Development is a process with clearly defined steps
Changes are easily identified as transitioning to the next “stage”
Changes in kind

Answer 4

Discontinuity

Question 5

Developmental changes are common to all humans

Common to stage or discontinuous theories

Answer 5

Universality

Question 6

Developmental changes is varied and influenced by cultural factors
Common to continuous theories

Answer 6

Context Specificity

Question 7

Psychoanalytic Theory
Learning Theories
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Systems Theories

Answer 7

Theories of Human Development

Question 8

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Neurologist and founder of developmental theory
Humans driven by instincts 
Biological urges
Unconscious motivation
Focused on sexual/aggressive urges

Answer 8

Psychoanalytic Theories

Question 9

impulsive, irrational, selfish
Present at Birth

Instincts (devil)

Answer 9

ID

Question 10

Rational, tries to satisfy desires in an appropriate way.
Begins in infancy, develops in toddlerhood

Reality (You)

Answer 10

Ego

Question 11

Internalized moral standards
Develops in early childhood 3-6

Morality (Angel)

Answer 11

SuperEgo

Question 12

Mouth is source of pleasure
Mother figure is critical

Freud’s Stages

Answer 12

Oral stage (birth- 1)

Question 13

Anus/defecation is a source of pleasure.
Conflict between urges (id) and society (ego)
Decaying gratification

Freud

Answer 13

Anal stage (1-3)

Question 14

Genitals are source of pleasure 
Resolution of Oedipus or Electra complex
Same-sex parent is a threat  identifying with same-sex parent. 
Development of superego
“Penis envy”
Curiosity about own and others’ genitals

Freud

Answer 14

Phallic stage (3 – 6 years)

Question 15

Libido is quiet
Schoolwork/friends

Freud

Answer 15

Latent period (6 – 12 years)

Question 16

Onset of puberty
Youth seek mature sexual relationships
Reproduction

Freud

Answer 16

Genital stage (12+ years)

Question 17

Arrested development, parts of libido are stuck on earlier stage

Lack of fulfillment in the oral stage
Nail biting
Excessive eating
smoking

Harsh toilet training procedure (anal phase)
Cleanliness, compulsively tidy or sloppy

Answer 17

“fixation”

Question 18

Neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorist

Emphasized full life span!

Answer 18

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Question 19

Development of essential trustfulness of others and oneself
Lack of trust leads to problems with intimacy later in life

Erikson

Answer 19

Basic trust vs. Mistrust (birth – 1 year):

Question 20

Children learn to express needs and do things for themselves
If not met, will doubt themselves.

Answer 20

Autonomy vs. Shame (1 – 3 years)

Question 21

Devising and implementing plans

May infringe on the rights of others. (guilt)

Answer 21

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 6 years)

Question 22

Master social and academic skills

If not resolved, feel they can’t keep up

Answer 22

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 – 12 years)

Question 23

Teenagers establish their own identities

If not resolved, are confused about adult roles.

Answer 23

Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 20 years)

Question 24

Forming shared identity with another person

May fear intimacy and experience loneliness

Answer 24

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20 – 40 years)

Question 25

Older adults must find their lives meaningful | If not resolved, fear death and have regrets

Answer 25

Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years)

Question 26

Middle adults must produce something that will last beyond their lifetimes If not resolved, become stagnant and self-centered

Answer 26

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 years)

Question 27

a neutral stimulus eventually produces a response through association with a stimulus that naturally produces a response Ex: Pavlov’s dogs

Answer 27

Classical conditioning

Question 28

``` Neutral stimulus: White rat Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): loud sound Unconditioned Response (UCR): fear of the sound Conditioned Stimulus (CS): white rat Conditioned Response (CR): fear ``` BEFORE: UCS UCR ….. CS --> no response DURING: UCS + CS --> UCR (becomes CR) AFTER: CS -->CR

Answer 28

Little Albert Experiment

Question 29

Behavior is more or less likely to occur based on the consequences Good consequences = more likely, bad consequences = less likely

Answer 29

Operant Conditioning

Question 30

Watson: conditioned stimuli that are not paired with an unconditioned stimuli for a long time no longer produce a response. (show rat with no noise, will stop being afriad after a certain time) Skinner: behavior that is ignored/not reinforced will not re-occur. (ignoring a child hitting you to get your attention, child will stop)

Answer 30

perspectives include extinction

Question 31

observation and imitation of others rather than reinforcement Bandura

Answer 31

Observational learning

Question 32

learning occurs but isn’t immediately demonstrated.

Answer 32

Latent learning

Question 33

``` children build their own understanding of the world based on their interactions with it Biological maturity + experience Build schema (a brain map/puzzle) and assimilate ideas ```

Answer 33

Constructivism

Question 34

``` Use senses and motor actions Innate reflexes used early on Grasping, sucking Observation of repetitive actions Eventually capable of symbolic thought with images/words (kids see a toilet and think bathroom) ```

Answer 34

Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2 years)

Question 35

Symbolic representation, language development Egocentrism Unable to take another perspective (everyone sees what they see) Centration Focusing on one dimension Do not use logical operations Easily fooled by appearances Cannot conserve mass, volume, number, etc.

Answer 35

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Question 36

``` Logical thinking begins Trial and error problem solving (unsystematic) Categorize, add, subtract Development of the conservation concept Draw conclusions based on observations Struggle with hypotheticals ```

Answer 36

Concrete Operations Stage | 7-12 years

Question 37

Ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically Systematic testing Ability to engage in scientific thinking (Not everyone reaches this stage)

Answer 37

Formal Operations Stage | 13 years and older

Question 38

Development is cognitive and shaped by social interactions in one’s cultural environment culture provides tools and problem solving methods passed through oral and written communication.

Answer 38

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective

Question 39

Changes in the brain’s physical development affect a child’s overall development Processing sped, memory storage Like a computer Related to Piaget’s tasks.

Answer 39

Information-Processing Model (around 1980’s)

Question 40

Must take into account developmental context and natural settings Development involves multiple systems and the interactions (or “transactions”) between them Mesosystem: interactions in your everyday life Ecosystem: affect you indirectly, government, parent’s work Microsystem: society that you life in, culture that you live in, what society expects from you

Answer 40

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model