chapter 2: how to study cognition

Question 1

define rationalism

Answer 1

use of logic and prior knowledge to guide obeservations

Question 2

define empiricism

Answer 2

all knowledge comes from experience and observation

Question 3

If someone strongly aligns with empiricism, would they say our actions are based on “nature” or “nurture”

Answer 3

nurture

Question 4

behaviorism is limited because ..
a. it only focuses on internal processes
b. too complex as it accounts for internal and external responses
c. impossible to scientifically study behavior
d. doesn’t account for internal mental processes and flexibility

Answer 4

d. doesn’t account for internal mental processes and flexibility

Question 5

what is referred to as the mind-body problem

Answer 5

the debate of how mental events (thoughts, beliefs, sensations) are related to or caused by physical mechanisms

Question 6

differentiate dualism and monism

Answer 6

dualism: mind and body consist of two different substances
monism: mind and body consist of the same substance

Question 7

name and explain the three types of monism

Answer 7

physicalism/materialism: only kind of reality is physical reality
idealism: only kind of reality is mental
neutral monism: neither physical or mental exists, but mind and body are both composed of the same element

Question 8

name and explain the two types of dualism

Answer 8

interactionism: mind and body interact to induce events in each other
epiphenomenalism: mind is the by-product of the brain, but not vice-versa (one way relationship)

Question 9

what is structuralism

Answer 9

analyzes the adult ming in terms of the simplest definable components and finds a way in which these components fit together in complex forms
relied on introspection and self-report

Question 10

what were the criticisms to structuralism

Answer 10

1. data can only be seen by one individual and not objectively verified by others. no replication
2. can only access mental activity available to conscious awareness

Question 11

define psychophysics

Answer 11

studies basic cognitive phenomenon by linking sensory experiences to physical changes

Question 12

what is functionalism

Answer 12

wonders why the mind works.
not interested in breaking down mental states to basic elements.
cognition is about serving a function and so must adapt to current goals

Question 13

what is behaviorism

Answer 13

focused on what can be observed
- don’t consider mental processes
- animal research
- assumes all species obey the same laws of behavior

Question 14

what is classical conditioning

Answer 14

learning by making associations between cue, a stimuli and the natural response

Question 15

what is instrumental learning/operant conditioning

Answer 15

behavior is contingent on a schedule of reinforcements, rewards and punishments

Question 16

behaviorism is limited because
a. it only focuses on internal processes
b. it is too complex as it accounts for internal and external responses
c. it is impossible to scientifically study behavior
d. it does not account for internal mental processes and flexibility

Answer 16

d. it does not account for internal mental processes and flexibility

Question 17

describe the “little albert” experiment

Answer 17

young child is presented repeatedly with white furry objects after being paired with loud crashing noise. it developed a strong fearful reaction not only to white furry objects but to all types of furry objects

Question 18

differentiate between positive/negative reinforcement/punishment

Answer 18

pos rein: smt added to increase beh
neg rein: smt removed to increase beh
pos pun: smt added to decrease beh
neg pun: smt removed to decrease beh

Question 19

what is an algorithm

Answer 19

method for producing the correct output from the input

Question 20

why do we process information

Answer 20

to reduce uncertainty
- the more uncertain, the longer it will take
- if we don’t know what to expect, we process more

Question 21

what is Hick’s law

Answer 21

a mathematical equation to show that the more information contained in a signal, the longer it takes to make a response to this signal

Question 22

true or false? information processing does not have limits

Answer 22

false

Question 23

explain the waugh & norman’s model of memory

Answer 23

stimulus is stored in primary memory.
if stimulus is rehearsed, it will move to secondary memory (long-term)
if not, stimulus will flow out of primary memory and be forgotten

Question 24

what is ecological validity

Answer 24

the extent to which the findings of a research study can be generalized to real-life naturalistic settings

Question 25

which school of thought or thinker is most responsible for promoting the use of controlled experiments for cognition research?
a. functionalism
b. structuralism
c. behaviourism
d. plato
e. all of the above

Answer 25

c. behaviourism

Question 26

what are the 4 assumptions of cognitive research

Answer 26

1. mental processes exist
2. mental processes can be studied scientifically
3. we are active information processors
4. the basis of mental processes is the brain

Question 27

define phrenology

Answer 27

parts of the brain correspond to mental functions and personality
- well-used mental functions: bump
- under-used mental functions: dent

Question 28

what is functional specialization

Answer 28

brain area or networks that supports a particular cognitive function

Question 29

what are the 6 methods in cognitive neuroscience

Answer 29

beh measurements: voluntary responses to stimuli
psychophysiological measurements: involuntary responses from PNS
animal models: investigate brain mechanism in animals
neuropsychological cases: comparison between injured brain and healthy brain
neuroimaging: techniques used to study structure/function of brain
spatial/temporal resolution: where and when activity occurs

Question 30

descartes articulated the perspective of ___
a. monism
b. physicalism
c. dualism
d. behaviorism

Answer 30

c. dualism

Question 31

what field of science served as an inspiration to the structuralist school?

Answer 31

chemistry

Question 32

the “cognitive revolution” led to the idea of cognition as a form of ___
a. mental rotation
b. introspection
c. computation
d. biology

Answer 32

c. computation

Question 33

describe Donders experiment

Answer 33

detection condition: push button when light turns on
discrimination condition: push button when left light turns on but not the right
choice: push left button when left turns on and right button for right light

Question 34

order the different conditions of Donder’s experiment, based on observed average reaction times, from shortest to longest
a. discrimination condition
b. detection condition
c. choice condition

Answer 34

b, a, c

Question 35

define mental imagery

Answer 35

the experience of seeing something with the ‘mind’s eye’ in the absence of real perceptual stimulation

Question 36

what is the flashed face distortion effect

Answer 36

when flipping through face images in rapid succession on their screen, faces will appear distorted and grotesque, but when slowed down, face are completely normal

Question 37

what is the stroop effect

Answer 37

delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli
ex. color test: interference from spelled-out words that typically leads to delay in naming the ink colors

Question 38

what are nuisance variables

Answer 38

variability in the data that is not due to experimental manipulation

Question 39

differentiate cognitive neuroscience from behavioral neuroscience

Answer 39

cognitive: behavioral experiments combined with methods for measuring brain activity
behavioral: incorporates behavioral experiments alongside physiological measures of the brain

Question 40

what is decision fatigue

Answer 40

quality of decisions decreases after a long session of decision making