Chapter 2- Skill Acquisition (Paper 1) Flashcards
(174 cards)
1
Q
Define skill
A
The learned ability to bring about predetermined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both.
2
Q
Define open skill
A
A skill performed in an unpredictable environment.
3
Q
Define closed skill
A
A skill performed in a predictable environment.
4
Q
Define gross skill
A
A skill that uses large muscle groups.
5
Q
Define fine skills
A
A skill that uses smaller muscle groups.
6
Q
Define a self-paced skill
A
When the performer controls the start and the speed of the skill.
7
Q
Define an externally-paced skill
A
When the performer has no control over the the start and the speed of the skill.
8
Q
Define a discrete skill
A
A skill that has a clear beginning and end.
9
Q
Define a serial skill
A
A skill that contains several discrete skills in order to make a more integrated movement.
10
Q
What is a low organised skill?
A
A skill that is easily broken into parts (discrete subroutines).
11
Q
What is a high organised skill?
A
A skill that is not easily broken into parts (closely integrated subroutines).
12
Q
What is a simple skill?
A
A skill that requires few decisions when being performed.
13
Q
What is a complex skill?
A
A skill that requires decision making using lots of information when performed.
14
Q
What is the difference between a skill and an ability?
A
A skill is something you learn where as an ability is something you are born with.
15
Q
What are the characteristics of a skill?
A
A- Aesthetically pleasing C- Consistent E- Efficient F- Fluent A- Accurate C- Controlled E- Economical
16
Q
Why is the classification of skills used?
A
It is used to group together different types of skills with similar characteristics. In sport we use a continuum to classify skills. This allows for skills to be analysed and placed between two given extremities, according to how they match the analysis criteria being applied.
17
Q
What are open and closed skills categorised into?
A
Environmental influence.
18
Q
What are the characteristics of open skills?
A
- Affected by the environment
- Externally-paced
- Require adaptations and decisions.
19
Q
What are the characteristics of closed skills?
A
- Self paced
- Unaffected by environment
20
Q
What are gross and fine skills categorised into?
A
Muscle involvement
21
Q
What is the order of the skills in continuity?
A
Discrete -> Serial -> Continuous
22
Q
What is a continuous skill?
A
A skill that has no obvious beginning or end
23
Q
What is a low organised skill also known as?
A
Incoherent
24
Q
What is a highly organised skill also known as?
A
Coherent
25
What is transfer?
The effect of learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another.
26
What is positive transfer?
When the learning of one skill helps the learning of another.
27
What is negative transfer?
When the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another.
28
What is zero transfer?
When the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another.
29
What is bilateral transfer?
When the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb.
30
When does positive transfer tend to occur?
Transfer tend to occur when two skills have a similar shape and form. This is because the actions of the two skills are similar so the movements of one help the other.
31
When does negative transfer tend to occur?
Tends to happen when there might be some familiarity with the environment in which the two skills are performed and this familiarity might cause confusion when the actions of the two skills are not the same.
32
Give an example of negative transfer
The wrist flexibility required for squash or badminton is likely to lead to interference when learning a tennis drive where a firm wrist is needed.
33
When does zero transfer tend to occur?
When two skills have no similarities and no aspect of confusion and does therefore not affect one another.
34
What is an example of zero transfer?
Often when skills are completely different such as rock climbing and a forehand drive.
35
What are the different types of presentation of practices (methods of presentation) ?
- Whole
- Progressive part
- Whole-part-whole
36
What is whole practice?
Practicing the skill in its entirety.
37
What is whole-part-whole practice?
Assessing the skill, identifying a weakness a to practice, then putting the skill back together.
38
What is progressive part practice?
Practicing the first part of a skill then adding parts gradually. Sometimes called chaining.
39
What is chaining?
Linking the sub-routines, or parts of a task, together in order when practicing. The first two parts are learned, then the third part is added; that is learned and then added to the first two, and so on.
40
What is massed practice?
No rest intervals
41
What is distributed practice?
Rest intervals.
42
What is mental practice?
Going over the skill in the mind without movement.
43
What is varied practice?
Changing the practice type and the practicing drills.
44
When is whole practice used?
- Fast
- Closed
- Discrete
- Self-paced
- Simple
- High organised
45
What are the advantages of using whole practice?
- Fluency
- Develops kinaesthesis or understanding (motor programme)
- Keeps link between sub-routines
- More realistic
46
What are the disadvantages of using whole practice?
- Too much information
- Beyond the capabilities of the performer
- Not for beginners
- Possibility of fatigue
47
What is an example of a skill taught by whole practice?
-Tennis serve
48
When is progressive part practice used to learn a skill?
- Complex - a complex skill can be isolated which takes pressure off a performer
- Serial - chaining can occur
- Externally paced
- Low organised - can be broken down
49
What are the advantages of using progressive part practice to learn a skill?
- Keeps links between parts
- Gives motivation (success in stages)
- Reduces danger
- Reduces fatigue
- Reduces demands
- Focuses on weaknesses
50
What are the disadvantages of using progressive part practice to learn a skill?
- Time consuming
- If the first part is incorrect, all is lost
- Negative transfer between each sequence of the skill
- Ignores links between sub routines
51
What is an example of a skill learnt by progressive part practice?
A dance routine
52
When is whole-part-whole practice used to learn a skill?
When the skill is:
- Complex
- Fast/ballistic
- Difficult to isolate parts of skill
- Performer has a specific weakness
- Beginner doing a complex task
53
What are the advantages of using whole-part-whole practice to learn a skill?
- Shows weakness and corrects it
- Provides motivation when success is achieved after a long standing weakness has been corrected
- fluency and integration of the sub routines can be maintained
54
What are the disadvantages of using whole-part-whole practice to learn a skill?
- Time consuming
- Some skills cannot be broke down
- May produce negative transfer if the skill is not integrated back within the same training session.
55
What is an example of a skill learnt by whole-part-whole practice?
Golf swing when the performer has a poor grip.
56
When is massed practice used to teach a skill?
When the skill is:
- Discrete
- Simple
- Closed
- Self paced
57
What are the advantages of using massed practice to teach a skill?
- Forms motor programmes
- Increases fitness
- Enhances over training
- Good for habitual responses
- Efficient
58
What are the disadvantages of using massed practice to teach a skill?
- No time for feedback
- Fatigue
- Too demanding
59
When is distributed practice used to teach a skill?
When the skill is:
- Continuous
- Complex
- Open
- Serial
- Externally paced
60
What are the advantages of using distributed practice to teach a skill?
- Allows recovery
- Less mental pressure
- Allows mental rehearsal/ feedback
- Reduces danger
- Motivation from praise
61
What are the disadvantages of using distributed practice to teach a skill?
- Time consuming
| - Negative transfer
62
Give an example of when massed practice is used (2)
- Basketball players throwing free throws (at different baskets)
- Bowlers bowling at wickets (different wickets)
63
Give an example of when distributed practice is used
A swimmer practicing stroke technique in training.
64
When is varied practice used to teach a skill?
When the skill is:
- Complex, easy part first then add
- Open
- Externally paced
65
What are the advantages of using varied practice to teach a skill?
- Builds a scheme
- Gives motivation
- Allows adaptation of skills to changing environments
66
What are the disadvantages of using varied practice to teach a skill?
- Time consuming
- Possibility of negative transfer unless the changing drills are integrated into the aims of practice sessions.
- Fatigue
- Too demanding
67
Give an example of when varied practice can be used.
Players practicing a football pass.
68
When can people practice using mental practice?
It can be done between practices as part of training programme or before a major event.
69
What skills use mental practice?
When skills are:
- Serial
- Complex
- Used by novice and experts
70
What are the advantages of using mental practice?
- Improves reaction time
- Builds motor programmes
- Builds confidence
- Controls anxiety
- Improves decision making
- Can be used when a player is injured, helping to maintain the memory of a skill
71
What are the disadvantages of using mental practice?
- Must be correct
| - Environment must be calm
72
Give an example of the use of mental practice?
A performer on the trampoline going over the routine before competition.
73
What stage of performers is whole-part-whole practice best for?
Cognitive
74
What stage of performers is whole practice best for?
Autonomous
75
What stage of performers is progressive part practice best for?
Cognitive and autonomous
76
Define learning
A permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice.
77
What is a performance?
A temporary occurrence that can change from time to time because of many external and internal factors.
78
What is the cognitive stage of learning?
The first stage of learning used by a novice. Understanding and sub-routines are explored by trial and error.
79
What is the associative stage of learning?
The second stage of learning as motor programmes are developed and performance is smoother.
80
What is the autonomous stage of learning?
The final stage of learning used by an expert when movement is detailed and specific.
81
List the three stages of learning in order
Cognitive -> Associative -> Autonomous
82
What is the best way to teach learners at the cognitive stage?
- Demonstrations are important at this stage but verbal guidance is needed in order to direct attention to the relevant cues. Problem solving through Q & A is also useful.
- The learner may find it useful to verbalise the sequence e.g "bounce, hit" in tennis to aid timing.
- Teacher must ensure overload of information does not occur, and to let beginners just have a good. (Trial and error)
- Keep information clear and simple
83
What is the best way to teach learners at the associative stage?
- More detailed feedback is given and used.
- Feedback should specific using KR and KP to allow for the development of kinaesthetic feedback in relation to the outcome.
84
What is a learner like at the associative stage of development?
- Aims are known and movement patterns are more fluent.
- Motor programmes are being developed.
- Simple aspects are well learned but complex aspects need attention.
- The learner needs to associate the 'feel' of the move with the result.
- Greater use of internal kinaesthetic feedback (intrinsic)
85
What is a learner like at the autonomous stage of development?
- Movements are fluent and automatic. They are performed with ease and an apparent lack of stress.
- Conscious attention to the movement is not needed (movement is now habitual)
- Attention can be paid to subtle cues and the environment e.g look at opponents grip/footwork to anticipate what they might be able to do.
- Skills are performed consistently and can be adapted.
- Errors can be detected and corrected without help.
86
What is the best way to teach learners at the autonomous stage?
Less external feedback is needed however when it is, it must be given specific and technical.
87
What are the problems at the cognitive stage of development?
Beginners have difficulty with:
- Deciding what to pay attention to (selective attention)
- Processing information (overload)
- Performing actions with gross errors (uncoordinated movements)
88
Ona performance curve what is the Y axis?
Level of performance achieved
89
On a performance curve what is the X axis?
Amount of time over which the performance has been measured (time/trials)
90
What does the shape of a performance curve show?
Shows the amount of learning that has taken place and when it was most effective.
91
What is an s-shaped curve also known as?
An ogive
92
On a typical learning curve what are the four points?
1) Slow beginning
2) Steep acceleration
3) Plateau
4) Deterioration in performance, due to fatigue or boredom.
93
What is a learning plateau?
A time when performance stops improving and levels out or decreases.
94
What are the causes of a learning plateau?
1) Lack of motivation - lack of incentives or extrinsic rewards.
2) Boredom
3) Coaching - Coach may use the incorrect practice method so that the skill is not done correctly.
4) Limit of ability - Performer may not improve simply because hey have reached the full extent of their ability.
5) Targets set too low - Perhaps the task is one that does not allow the learner to use the full range of their skills - they cannot improve because the limits of the task do not allow them too.
6) Fatigue - Continuous action over an extended period causes tiredness, especially if the same muscles are being used repeatedly.
95
What are the ways to overcome a learning plateau?
- Task could be extended so that a new challenge to test the performer is given and new targets or goals are set to see if such task extensions are met.
- Player could find a new coach to raise performance levels.
- Coach could offer more praise and positive reinforcement to provide motivation.
- Rest could be taken to avoid fatigue.
- More variety could be added to the task so boredom might be avoided.
- The concept of learning plateaus could be explained to the performer so that they do not take personal responsibility for their lack of improvement.
- The player could get some feedback to help improve performance and motivation.
96
Regarding motor programme, how does this change through the stages of learning?
Cognitive -> No motor programme, un-coordinated movement
Associative -> Motor programme forming, smoother movement
Autonomous -> Motor programme formed, automatic control, detail
97
What is the purpose of feedback? (3 points)
Feedback helps performers to improve by:
- Reducing errors
- Improving confidence
- Increases motivation
98
What are the types of feedback?
```
Positive
Negative
Extrinsic
Knowledge of Performance
Intrinsic
Knowledge of Results
```
99
What is feedback?
Information to aid error correction.
100
What is positive feedback?
Encouragement
101
What is negative feedback?
Error correction
102
What is intrinsic feedback?
From within
103
What is knowledge of results?
Concerns the outcome - was it successful or not.
104
What is knowledge of performance?
About technique
105
What are examples of extrinsic feedback and who uses the most?
The outcome of the performance that comes from the senses, sensing the external environment, for example what they see and hear (augmented). It is important for beginners.
106
Who uses knowledge of results most?
Beginners - It forms an early basis of improvement.
107
Knowledge of results what/how a performance has gone?
What - It says nothing about the quality of the performance
108
Knowledge of performance what/how a performance has gone?
How - the performer will look at how they have performed, so even though the may finish last in a race (ie the outcome is poor) they improved their time or they performed with better technique than before.
109
What type of feedback is given to learners at the cognitive stage?
- Feedback is primarily external
| - Must be positive/encouraging, but performer and supportive - offer, don't be too technical
110
What type of feedback is given to learners at the associative stage?
-Feedback still external, but performer learning to focus on more intrinsic (internal) cues.
111
What type of feedback is given to learners at the autonomous stage?
- Feedback must be detailed and specific
| - They benefit from error correction and can deal with complex and technical feedback
112
What is drive reduction?
An end-of-task period when performance may get worse.
113
What is visual guidance?
Guidance that can be seen a demonstration.
114
What is verbal guidance?
An explanation.
115
What is manual guidance?
Physical support.
116
What is mechanical guidance?
An artificial aid.
117
What are methods of guidance?
Techniques to help improvement
118
What are the four methods of guidance?
- Visual
- Verbal
- Manual
- Mechanical
119
When are methods often used?
Often used with feedback, by coaches and teachers to aid learning.
120
Which stage of learning relies most of visual guidance?
Cognitive
121
Examples of visual guidance and their characteristics (3)
- Demonstrations - Must be accurate, relate to age, experience and gender of performer.
- Visual aids - Photographs, charts, models, videos and computer analysis.
- Modifying the display - Enhance perception - make cues stand out (orange tennis ball)
122
What are the advantages of visual guidance?
- Highlights specific weaknesses
- Shows what skills should look like as a result of practice.
- Creates a mental image
- Used in conjunction with verbal guidance
123
What are the disadvantages of visual guidance?
- Demonstrations must be completely accurate, otherwise it may be copied incorrectly.
- If too much information is given, the performer may be confused.
- Steady and slow and accurate are the keys to visual success.
124
What are the advantages of verbal guidance?
- Help builds a correct mental image
- Makes sure the learner understands
- Describes actions
- Can be used for all learners (all stages)
125
What are the disadvantages of verbal guidance?
- If too much information is given, it may cause confusion and place too much demand on memory systems.
- Performer may loose concentration unless the coach makes the verbal information brief, relevant and meaningful.
- Language used needs to be understandable
- Correct type of verá el guidance should be used positive/negative.
- Relies on the coaches expertise - might be wrong
126
What are the advantages of manual guidance?
- Helps eliminate danger
- Helps build confidence of the performer
- Fear and anxiety associated with dangerous or difficult tasks may be reduced to supporters on hand to help the performer; when the task is more complex, can be broken down into stages with the help of physical support.
127
What are the disadvantages of manual guidance?
- Can have a detrimental effect on the performance if it is overused.
- Too much reliance on physical support can begin to interfere with the feel of the task as done in the real environment, causing the performer to develop bad habits.
- Dependence on the support, therefore the loss of confidence in its absence.
- Close proximity (of coach) may also be off-putting.
128
Examples of mechanical guidance
- Armbands for swimming
| - Harness for on the trampoline
129
What are the advantages of mechanical guidance?
- It builds confidence - Allows for early success
- It eliminates danger - helps to prevent injury
- It gives an early feel for the whole skill
- Can be used for disabled athletes, or those recovering from injury
130
What are the disadvantages of mechanical guidance?
- Can interfere with the feel of the task
- Before might become dependent on it
- Motivation can be lost if the performer thinks the skill is not being performed independently
131
What is operant conditioning?
The use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated.
132
What is a behaviourist theory?
This attempts to explain how actions can be linked to stimuli.
133
What is a satisfier?
An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that responses are repeated.
134
What is an annoyer?
An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses.
135
What is positive reinforcement?
A pleasant stimulus after the correct response.
136
What is negative reinforcement?
Taking away an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response.
137
What is punishment?
An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring.
138
What is attention?
Making the demonstration attractive to the performer.
139
What is retention?
Remembering the demonstration and being able to recall it.
140
What is motor production?
Having the mental and physical ability to do the task.
141
What is motivation?
Having the drive to do the task
142
What is social development?
Learning by association with others
143
What is inter-psychological learning?
Learning from others externally
144
What is intra-psychological learning?
Learning using others or an MKO to develop knowledge.
145
What is constructivism?
Building up learning in stages, based on the current level of performance.
146
What is the zone of proximal development?
The next stage of learning based on the performer's needs, expectations and current level of performance.
147
What is insight learning?
Using experience and understanding to solve problems relating to the whole skill.
148
What are behaviourist theories also known as?
Conditioning theories
149
What are behaviourist theories to do with?
To do with the relationship between the stimulus and response (S-R bond)
150
When does learning occur?
When the presentation of a stimulus usually leads to an appropriate response.
151
The more you train the more ... it becomes
Autonomous
152
When can a behaviour be changed?
If directed towards a stimulus
153
What does operant conditioning involve?
The learning and strengthening of the stimulus response bonds.
154
What is operant conditions also known as?
Trial and error learning
155
What is the concept of operant conditioning/ instrumental/ trial and error learning?
The idea is that the performer gets a reward when they do something right, thus reinforcing the correct behaviour.
156
What is complete reinforcement? Is learning faster or slower?
When a reward is given every time the response is correct. Learning is faster.
157
What is partial reinforcement? Is learning faster or slower?
When rewards are given periodically rather than every time a correct response occurs. Learning is slower but learning lasts longer if given periodically.
158
What was skinners conclusion?
Both positive and negative reinforcement cagoule be used to increase the probability of a certain behaviour happening again. Punishment could be used to weaken the S-R bond and thus reduce the probability or certain unwanted behaviour or performances reoccurring.
159
What are the characteristics of operant conditioning?
- Based on trial and error
- Shapes behaviour
- Manipulates the environment
160
What is reinforcement?
Can be defined as any event, action or phenomenon which, by strengthening the s-r bond, increases the probability of a response occurring again. It is therefore the system or process used to shape future behaviour.
161
How does negative reinforcement work?
Withdrawing unpleasant stimulus to encourage correct response (e.g a coach constantly shouting at their team from the sideline suddenly stops shouting).
162
What is better negative reinforcement or punishment?
Negative reinforcement is better as it negatively reinforces things they are doing wrong so they know what to improve rather than making them annoyed by punishing them.
163
How does positive reinforcement work?
Pleasant stimulus to encourage correct response.
164
How do you learn through social learning?
Through demonstrations and by copying role models.
165
What is social learning also known as?
Observational learning
166
What are the four stages of Bandura's model?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
167
Describe the different stages of Bandura's model
Stage 1 - Attention - Coaches make sure the performer takes notes of the relevant cues. The more attractive the demonstration is the more likely it is going to be copied. Point out the function or reason why you are asking them to learn it. The demonstration must be accurate and correct.
Stage 2 - Retention - Ability to remember important information and recall it from the memory system. Make sure the learner is able to recall the demonstration in the memory by breaking any information into given into chunks and repeating it.
Stage 3 - Motor reproduction - Capability of performer to physically copy the demonstration.
Stage 4 - Motivation - Drive needed to copy the demonstration. Performers can be motivated by giving praise and rewards as well as positive reinforcement.
168
What stages go before and after Bandura's model?
- Observation of a demonstration
| - Actual modelled performance reproduced
169
What is Vygotsky's social development theory?
Interaction with others can produce learning by social development.
170
What three ways can people learn through social development?
- Learning influenced by more knowledgable others (MKO's)
- Inter-psychological learning: The learner uses the MKO to get advice, feedback and tactical knowledge.
- Intra-psychological learning: Internal learning process based on the advice from the MKO.
171
Vygotsky suggested performers use the zone of proximal development. What three stages did he come up with?
1. What can i do alone?
2. What can i do with help?
3. What can i not do yet?
172
How can mental practice be used to coach?
- For beginners, the mental practice should be short and the key parts of the task should be emphasised. The particular benefits of mental practice should be lower arousal and anxiety, to build confidence, to provide a basic picture of the skill, to reduce errors and to provide motivation.
- With expert performers, the techniques of mental practice should be established so that coaches can devote a whole session to preparing for a major game.
- For advanced performers, it is important to develop mental practice because it helps improve reaction times, activates muscles, helps a performer focus and makes sure they stay in the autonomous stage of learning.
173
What are the different types of practice?
- Massed
- Distributed
- Varied
- Mental
174
What is the difference between internal and external mental rehearsal?
Internal - emotions
| External - mental picture of environment
