Chapter 2 - Understanding Theory

Question 1

What is a theory?

Answer 1

• A statement of how and why specific facts are related
• Job of sociological theory
• To explain social behavior in the real world
• Sociologists conduct research to test and refine their theories

Question 2

Sociological Theories

Answer 2

• Functionalism
• Conflict
• Feminism
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Dramaturgy

Question 3

Theoretical perspectives

Answer 3

Groups of theories that share much in common

Question 4

Structural functionalism.

Answer 4

Social Institutions

• Structural functionalism is a macroscopic level theory. It focuses on social structures and society, not the actions of individuals.
• The seven primary social institutions
• Social institutions construct stability and order
• The view of modern societies as consisting of interdependent parts working together for the good of the whole
• Social solidarity is the moral order of society and is necessary for society to function properly.
• The structural functionalist perspective believes that both social harmony and social order are important. Modern societies consist of interrelated parts, and they need to work together in a harmonious and orderly fashion in order for society to function properly.
• Individuals work for the larger society’s interests, rather than their own, because of social solidarity, or the moral order of society. Families, religion, education, and other institutions teach individuals to help society function smoothly.
• Sociologists who use this theoretical perspective tend to focus on social harmony and social order. They often overlook issues such as conflict and inequality. Instead, structural functionalists emphasize the role of the major social institutions and how they help provide stability to society.
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Question 5

Understanding the Structural Functionalist Perspective

Answer 5

Durkheim and Types of Societies:

• Mechanical solidarity was found in simpler societies. The similarity of its members created social order and cohesion.
• Organic solidarity is what defines more complex and current societies. People can specialize in the tasks they perform, and we rely on other people to perform those tasks. What would happen if teachers stopped teaching? Or garbage collectors stopped picking up the trash? How long before problems would arise, causing other societal problems?

Social Institutions

• Sets of statuses and roles
• One aspect of society
• Work together, form social structures

Question 6

Seeing the Social World Using Structural Functionalism

Answer 6

• Social institutions work together to socialize members of society into following the same norms and values. This helps build social harmony and social order.
• Punishment is necessary according to this perspective to correct problematic behavior and prevent others from engaging in similar actions.
• In order to maintain social harmony and order, the structural functionalist perspective argues that social change should be slow and gradual. Change that is too rapid can cause problems and unintended consequences.

Question 7

Émile Durkheim

Answer 7

Writing in the early 1900s, examined social solidarity throughout history.

Question 8

Social Institutions

Answer 8

Sets of statuses and roles focused around one central aspect of society (think of social institutions as similar to the different organ systems in a human body). A status is the position a person occupies in a particular institution.

Question 9

Macro-Level Analysis

Answer 9

When sociologists examine large-scale social processes, like institutions

Question 10

Seven primary social institutions

Answer 10

Structural functionalists note that there are seven primary social institutions: family, religion, economy, education, government, health care, and media.

Question 11

Institution: Manifest Functions

Answer 11

The obvious stated reasons that a social institution exists

Question 12

Institutions: Latent Functions

Answer 12

Good or useful things that a social institution does but are not the institution’s reason for existing.

Latent functions almost always link to a second social institution and connections between one social institution and another build the social harmony structural functionalists see when they look at society.

Question 13

Dysfunctions

Answer 13

Behavioral patterns that have unintended negative consequences,

Question 14

Social change: Structural Functionalism

Answer 14

Because they see harmony deriving from the stable functioning of institutions and cooperation among them, are not sure that social change is necessarily a good thing. Change in one institution rips apart the social harmony and equilibrium between it and the other institutions and requires a long time for the other social institutions to “catch up” and to reestablish social equilibrium.

Should be done very slowly so as not to upset the equilibrium

Question 15

Conflict Perspective

Answer 15

Macro-theoretical perspective

Instead of seeing society as groups of institutions working together for the good of the whole, conflict theorists believe that society is composed of groups competing for power.

Karl Marx

Expanding upon Marx’s analysis, conflict theorists recognize many ways in which social rewards are unequally distributed

Talk about the haves—those individuals and social institutions that gain access to more of society’s scarce rewards—and the have-nots—those unable to get even their fair share of social rewards because of their category membership.

Conflict theorists notice patterns of inequitable distribution of resources and rewards.

Believe that social change to alleviate social injustice should be done rapidly.

Can overlook moments when society is going along fairly well. By concerning itself primarily with injustices and oppression, conflict can overlook times of societal harmony and equilibrium.

Do not always acknowledge how disruptive and harmful change can be—for the have-nots as well as the haves.

Question 16

Karl Marx

Answer 16

Founder of the conflict perspective believed that there were ten stages of societal development, but he was most concerned with the last three stages.

All of these stages of social change are economic ones, and Marx is often called an economic determinist. The social institution that was the base of the society, for him, was always the economy.

• Bourgeoisie: The bourgeoisie are the wealthy and own the technical and materials needed to make good. They employ, and exploit, the proletariat, who are the workers.
• Proletariat: Workers
• Lumpenproletariat: Chronically unemployed

Question 17

Conflict Perspective: Stage 8

Answer 17

Marx held that advanced capitalism is an economic system based on the pursuit of maximum profit.

Capitalism divides people into two major categories and a third, smaller group.

1. The bourgeoisie - the rich owners of the means of production (the technology and materials needed to produce products, such as factories)
2. The proletariat - the poor workers (in the factories, etc.).
3. The Lumpenproletariat - the perpetually unemployed

Question 18

False Consciousness

Answer 18

Collectively and individually did not understand that they and the owners had different self-interests. They were, he argued, misled to believe that what was good for the owner also benefited them. They believed that, if they just worked hard every day, they too might become members of the bourgeoisie.

Question 19

Alienation

Answer 19

Proletariat are prevented from living up to their species being by the very nature of the capitalist exploitation they endured. They lived in a state of alienation that left them laboring for others and separated from what they created.

Question 20

Karl Marx and Socialism

Answer 20

Marx predicted that when the proletarian revolution began, society would move from the eighth stage of societal development, advanced capitalism, into the ninth stage, socialism.

In socialism, children would be off the factory floors and sent to free public schools while able-bodied adults would work.

The state would take over the means of production from the bourgeoisie through imposing a heavy progressive income tax on all adult citizens. This tax would economically hurt only the bourgeoisie (although many in that group were expected to die in the revolution). A proletariat worker, with almost no income, would not have to pay much.

New inheritance laws would ensure that rich families would no longer be able to pass money, property, and other expensive goods down to the next generation of their families.

After a bourgeoisie died, the socialist government would “inherit” the rest of their money and goods and redistribute it to the citizens.

Question 21

Conflict Perspective: Stage 9

Answer 21

socialism.

In socialism, children would be off the factory floors and sent to free public schools while able-bodied adults would work.

The state would take over the means of production from the bourgeoisie through imposing a heavy progressive income tax on all adult citizens. This tax would economically hurt only the bourgeoisie (although many in that group were expected to die in the revolution). A proletariat worker, with almost no income, would not have to pay much.

New inheritance laws would ensure that rich families would no longer be able to pass money, property, and other expensive goods down to the next generation of their families.

After a bourgeoisie died, the socialist government would “inherit” the rest of their money and goods and redistribute it to the citizens.

Question 22

Conflict Perspective: Stage 10

Answer 22

Communism.

Marx believed that after a few generations of socialism as an economic system, some of the key social institutions, such as the political and economic systems, would no longer be needed and would disappear. Under communism, all citizens would be equal and, at long last, able to fulfill their species-being. Each person could contemplate and then go create. There would be no social classes under communism because every person would make the same wage for work done.

Never accomplished.

Question 23

Social Conflict approach

Answer 23

Sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change

Question 24

Theories under the Umbrella of the Conflict Perspective

Answer 24

Feminist conflict theorists argue that men as a category of people have greater access to social rewards than women.

Critical race theorists focus on the social construction of race and the White-dominated racial hierarchy

Build on Marx’s insight that some individuals and groups have more resources and rewards than others do and that this is unjust.

Question 25

Gender-conflict theory

Answer 25

Focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men

Feminism: Advocacy of social equality for women and men linked to gender-conflict theory

Theorists

• Harriet Martineau
• Jane Addams

Question 26

Race-conflict theory

Answer 26

Focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories

Question 27

Understanding the Conflict Theoretical Perspective

Answer 27

Karl Marx and Socialism (See the Communist Manifesto for deeper look at Mars’s ideas)

• Socialism is the ninth stage of societal development. Once the proletariat realize the degree of their exploitation, they will rise up and revolt. This will lead to a socialist society where the government gradually takes over the means of production. It will take several generations before this stage is complete.
• Inequalities will still exist, but they won’t be nearly as bad as what currently exists. Workers will begin to understand their species being, and alienation will decrease.
• Proletariat revolution leads to socialism
• More economic equality between classes

Question 28

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Answer 28

Micro-level perspective

Provides that theoretical balance for sociology.

We can use it to examine how any one person develops a self—a sense of our place in society and who we are in relationship to others.

It helps us study how meaning comes to be constructed and shared by a group of people.

Symbolic interactionists view society as a social construction, continually constructed and reconstructed by individuals through their use of shared symbols.

Question 29

Symbolic-Interactionism

Answer 29

The Basics:

• Focuses on social interactions in specific situations
• Views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals

Key elements:

• Society is shared, dynamic constructed reality developed through interaction.

Theorists:

• Weber
• Mead

Question 30

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Culture

Answer 30

The way of life of a particular group of people and how it comes to be created.

Individuals come together around one or more shared purposes and begin to interact. This interaction, over time, becomes routinized in various ways.

The group constructs its culture. Culture includes norms and the symbols through which we communicate

Culture also consists of values, what we believe to be good or bad, and material objects the group creates to make life easier and meaningful. All of these are social constructions.

Question 31

George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley

Answer 31

The founders of the symbolic interactionist perspective, both emphasized the importance of the socialization process.

Question 32

Charles Horton Cooley: Looking glass self

Answer 32

Described how a child develops a sense of self in three steps.

Children rely on feedback from others to understand themselves. Behaviors that are ”good” receive positive feedback, while behaviors that are “bad” receive negative feedback. The same holds true for how we dress, what activities we pursue, how well we do in school, and so forth. How we are is constantly subjected to feedback from others, and that helps us understand who we are.

• Role of others in one’s development
• Reacting to feedback
• Influence of primary groups

Question 33

Primary Group

Answer 33

Small collections of people of which a person is a member, usually for life, and in which deep emotional ties develop, such as one’s family of origin.

Shapes the child’s sense of self. Others in effect become the “mirror” by which each person sees oneself.

Question 34

Dramaturgy Theory

Answer 34

Erving Goffman (1959) was a sociologist who said that life was like a play—a drama—in which we are all actors.

Explain interaction among small groups by looking at the social actors (the individuals involved in the interaction), the social scripts the actors follow, and the props (material objects) the actors use to enhance their performances.

The front stage - where the interaction takes place)

The back stage - where one prepares for the interaction)

Impression management - We each try to control the vibe we give off to others. Each of us uses the presentation of self skills—shaping the physical, verbal, visual, and gestural messages that we give to others—to (try to) control their evaluations of us.

“front stage” settings, it is important for individuals to engage in “presentation of self” tactics in order to help control the message(s) they give to other people. Goffman also argued that it’s important to have the back stage separate so people have a place to relax and be themselves.

• Social actors, social scripts, props
• Front stage and back stage
• Presentation of self

Question 35

What does Symbolic Interaction Perspective help us see?

Answer 35

Concentrating on how individuals become socialized into the norms and values of their social group and thereby shape their sense of self, interaction focuses on different questions than the two macro-theoretical perspectives.

But not to understand the institutional issues

Question 36

Understanding the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Answer 36

Whereas the first two perspectives are macro in nature, symbolic interactionism is a micro level perspective. This helps bring balance to our theoretical understanding of how the world works.

• Micro level theoretical perspective
• Development of self
• The social construction and reconstruction of meaning

Question 37

Understanding the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Answer 37

The Social Construction of Reality

• How culture is created
• Shared interactions
• Role of primary socialization

Question 38

Social Constructionism

Answer 38

Begins with the social construction of reality, just as symbolic interaction does: every society creates norms, values, objects, and symbols it finds meaningful and useful. Social constructionists, however, also note that different categories or groups of people in society get different rewards, as conflict theory states. Some have more, some have less. Social constructionists argue that this stratification—although felt in the world by individuals—is ultimately created and sustained through social systems, which must be made more just.

Social constructionism combines a macro theory (conflict) to a micro theory and provides another interpretation of the social world. Using the principles of how reality is constructed, it allows us to understand how social institutions are socially constructed as well.

Question 39

Full Theoretical Circle

Answer 39

A small group creates its own norms. Over time, some of those norms get shared among more members of the society as people interact, which is what symbolic interactionists study.

These norms end up constructing sets of statuses and roles around key aspects of how society operates and creates social institutions. Once social institutions become routinized, they shape society and how individuals react to those social institutions, which structural functionalists analyze.

Inevitably, power differentials arise between the haves and the have-nots in social institutions and in the broader society, which sociologists using the conflict perspective study.

Each perspective offers the sociologist a unique viewpoint.

None of them is the correct one; rather, each of the perspectives gives sociologists a particular lens with which to see human society.

Structural functionalists focus on social order and institutions and agreement on the basic values that create and sustain that social order but tend not to notice conflict and inequality.

Conflict theorists do just the opposite; they see social problems caused by oppression and injustices but overlook moments of order and social harmony.

Neither structural functionalists nor conflict theorists deal with the behavior of small groups, leaving that to symbolic interactionists who examine how groups create culture and pass it on to the next generation, but ignore macro issues of power and control, social harmony, and balance.