Chapter 23 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
steps that occur during respiration
A
pulmonary ventilation
external (pulmonary) respiration
internal (tissue) respiration
2
Q
pulmonary ventilation
A
breathing
exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs
Inhalation: O2 in
Exhalation CO2 out
3
Q
external (pulmonary) respiration
A
exchange of air between the alveoli and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane
pulmonary capillaries gain O2/lose CO2
4
Q
internal (tissue) respiration
A
exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells
blood loses O2 and gains CO2
cells have cellular respiration
5
Q
cellular respiration
A
Within cells, the metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during ATP production
6
Q
respiratory system parts/how classified
A
nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and
lungs
classified structurally 2 ways and functionally two ways
7
Q
respiratory system structural classification
A
upper respiratory system: nose, nasal
cavity, pharynx, and associated structures
lower respiratory system: larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
8
Q
respiratory system functional classification
A
conducting zone: series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs (nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles) Function->filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs
respiratory zone: consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli) Function->main sites of gas exchange between air and
blood
9
Q
functions of respiratory system
A
- provides for gas exchange
- helps regulate blood pH
- contains receptors for sense of smell, filters air, produces vocal sounds (phonation), and excretes small amounts of water and heat
10
Q
what forms the boney framework of nose
A
frontal, nasal, maxilla bones
11
Q
what forms the cartilaginous framework of the nose
A
septal (1)/lateral nasal (2)/alar (6?) cartilages connected by dense fibrous CT and adipose tissue
12
Q
interior structure of internal nose functions (3)
A
- warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air
- detecting olfactory stimuli
- modifying speech vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow resonating chambers
13
Q
resonance
A
prolonging, amplifying, or modifying a sound by vibration
14
Q
nasal septum formed by
A
anterior: hyaline cartilage
posterior: vomer and the perpendicular
plate of the ethmoid, maxillae, and palatine bones
15
Q
external vs internal nares
A
nostrils lead to nasal vestibules vs nasal cavity communicates with pharynx by these two ducts
16
Q
paranasal sinuses vs nasolacrimal ducts
A
mucus vs tears
17
Q
what bones have paranasal sinuses
A
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillae
18
Q
nasal cavity divisions
A
respiratory region: larger/inferior
olfactory region: smaller/superior
19
Q
nasal vestibule were/contain
A
anterior portion of nasal cavity, just inside nostrils, contains hairs to dust particles
20
Q
function of conchae and meatuses function
A
increase SA and prevent dehydration by trapping water droplets during exhalation
21
Q
pharynx (what/extends/made of)
A
throat
13cm (5in) from internal nares to cricoid cartilage (most inferior cartilage of the larynx)
skeletal muscle (outer circular/inner longitudinal) lined with MM
22
Q
pharynx function
A
passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which participate in immunological reactions against foreign invaders
23
Q
pharynx divisions
A
- nasopharynx
- oropharynx
- laryngopharynx
24
Q
nasopharynx
A
posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate
25
soft palate (what/where/openings/tissue/tonsils/function)
an arch-shaped muscular partition between the nasopharynx and oropharynx that is lined by MM
five openings: two internal nares, two openings that lead into the auditory (pharyngotympanic) tubes, and the opening into the oropharynx
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
pharyngeal tonsil
cilia move the mucus down toward the most inferior part of the pharynx, exchanges small amounts of air with the auditory tubes to equalize air pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere
26
oropharynx (where/openings/tissue/tonsils/function)
posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate inferiorly
to the level of the hyoid bone
one opening: fauces->opening from the mouth
nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
Two pairs of tonsils, the palatine and
lingual tonsils
common passageway for air, food, and drink
27
laryngopharynx (AKA/where/openings/tissue/tonsils/function)
hypopharynx
starts at hyoid and opens into the esophagus (food tube) posteriorly and the larynx (voice box) anteriorly
non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
no tonsils
respiratory and a digestive pathway
28
larynx (what, connects, where, made of)
voicebox
connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea
anterior to esophagus and C4-C6
nine pieces of cartilage
29
what are the pieces of cartilage that make up the larynx/which one is most important and why
9
Three occur singly (thyroid cartilage, epiglottis, and cricoid cartilage)
three occur in pairs (arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages).
most important: arytenoid as influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds
30
cavity of the larynx
space that extends from the entrance into the larynx down to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage
31
laryngeal vestibule
portion of larynx cavity above the vestibular fold
32
thyroid cartilage (AKA/what)
adams apple
two fused plates of hyaline cartilage that form the anterior wall of the larynx
and give it a triangular shape
33
infraglottic cavity
portion of the cavity of the larynx below the vocal folds
34
epiglottis (what/shape/function)
large, leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium
elevation (swallowing) of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move
down and form a lid over the glottis to route liquids and foods into the esophagus and keep them out of the larynx and airways
35
glottis
consists of a pair of folds of MM, the vocal folds (true vocal cords) in the larynx, and the space between them called the rima glottidis
36
cricoid
singular
ring like hyaline cartilage forms inferior wall of larynx
37
arytenoid cartilages
paired
triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at the posterior,
superior border of the cricoid cartilage
38
corniculate cartilages
paired
horn-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage, are located at the
apex of each arytenoid cartilage
39
lining of larynx superior to vocal folds vs inferior
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium vs ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
40
cilia in the upper respiratory tract function
move mucus/dust down to pharynx
41
cilia in the lower respiratory tract function
move mucus/dust up to pharynx
42
vestibular folds vs vocal folds
superior/false vocal chords vs inferior/true vocal chords
43
rima vestibuli
space between vestibular folds
44
what happens when Intrinsic laryngeal muscles contract
move cartilages = pulls elastic ligaments tight = stretches vocal folds out into airways = rima glottidis narrows = more tension = more pressure of air = louder sound
45
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
contraction = abduction of rima glottidis (open)
46
lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
contraction= adduction of rima glottidis (closed)
47
pitch
controlled by tension on the vocal folds
taut=increase vibration=higher pitch
men's vocal folds are longer thicker to have deeper voice
48
sound
originates from vocal folds vibration but other strucutres are needed
pharynx, mouth, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses all act as resonating chambers that give the voice its human and individual quality
49
vowel sounds made by
constricting/relaxing pharynx
50
whispering
closing all but the posterior portion of the rima glottidis
no vibration=no pitch
51
trachea (AKA, where, divides)
windpipe
anterior to the esophagus and extends from the larynx to the superior border of T5 where it divided into R/L primary bronchi
52
layers of trachea wall
deep to superficial:
(1) mucosa, (2) submucosa, (3) hyaline cartilage, and (4) adventitia
(composed of areolar CT)
53
fibromuscular membrane
in the open part of each C-
shaped hyaline cartilage ring of the trachea (posteriorly)
54
trachealis muscle
transverse muscle within fibromuscular membrane that allow the trachea to change diameter during in/exhalation
55
branching of bronchiole tree
trachea, main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
56
right vs left primary bronchus
right main bronchus is more vertical, shorter, and wider than the left = aspirated object is more likely to enter and lodge in the right main
bronchus than the left
57
carina
internal ridge formed by a posterior and somewhat inferior projection of the last tracheal cartilage
MM is most sensitive and triggers cough reflex
58
right vs left lobar bronchi
3 right vs 2 left
59
club (Clara) cells (where,what,function)
terminal bronchioles contain columnar, nonciliated cells interspersed among the epithelial cells
may protect against harmful eff ects of inhaled toxins and carcinogens, produce surfactant, and function as stem cells (reserve cells), which give rise to various cells of the epithelium
60
what happens beyond bronchial tree
branches become microscopic (Respiratory bronchioles, Alveolar ducts)
61
respiratory passages from the trachea to the alveolar ducts contain how many generations of branching
about 23 (name followed by generation #)
conducting zone:
trachea (0)
Main bronchi (1)
Lobar and segmental bronchi (2-10)
Bronchioles and terminal bronchioles (11-16)
Respiratory zone:
Respiratory bronchioles (17-19)
Alveolar ducts (20-22)
Alveolar sacs (23)
62
as branching becomes more extensive, what structural changes happen
1. MM in the bronchial tree changes from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the main/lobar/segmental bronchi to ciliated simple columnar epithelium with some goblet cells in larger bronchioles, to mostly ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium with no goblet cells in smaller bronchioles, to mostly nonciliated simple cuboidal epithelium in terminal bronchioles
2. Plates of cartilage replace the C rings of cartilage in main bronchi and disappear in the distal bronchioles
3. as amount of cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle
increases
63
serous membrane of lungs
parietal (wall)/visceral (lungs) pleura
pleural cavity filled with pleural fluid (reduces friction)
64
mediastinal (medial) surface of each lung contains (and what is it known as)
hilum where bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves enter and exit held by pleura/CT and are known as root of lung
65
cardiac notch
in L lung where apex of heart lies
66
lung fissures
oblique fissure: ant/inf in both
horizotnal fissure: in R lung
67
bronchopulmonary segment
portion of lung tissue that each segmental bronchus supplies (after lobar bronchi)
68
lobule (what,wrapped in, contains)
compartments in bronchopulmonary segment
wrapped in elastic CT
has lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole
69
respiratory bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
and lobule subdivide into microscopic branches called respiratory bronchioles
70
microscopic airways path
respiratory bronchioles
alveolar ducts
alveolar sacs
alveoli
71
what are the two types of alveolar cells
type I alveolar (squamous pulmonary epithelial) cells: simple squamous
epithelial cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall, gas exchange; more numerous
Type II alveolar cells (septal cells): found between type I, rounded or
cuboidal epithelial cells with free surfaces containing microvilli, secrete
alveolar fluid; less numerous
72
alveolar fluid
secreted by type II alveolar cells
keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist
contains surfactant (mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins): lowers
the surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintains their patency
73
surfactant (what/function/where)
mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins
lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintains their patency
in alveolar fluid secreted by type II alveolar cells
74
alveolar macrophages (dust
cells) (where/what)
in alveolar wall
phagocytes that remove fine dust particles and other debris from
the alveolar spaces
75
respiratory membrane
alveolar and capillary walls, which together form the resp membrane
4 layers
76
layers of respiratory membrane
1. alveolar wall: type I/II alveolar cells+alveolar macrophages
2. epithelial basement membrane
3. capillary basement membrane
4. capillary endothelium
77
vestibule (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous. No. No. Contains numerous hairs
78
respiratory region of nose (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar. Yes. Yes. Contains conchae and meatuses
79
olfactory region of nose (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Olfactory epithelium (olfactory
receptors). Yes. No. Functions in olfaction
80
nasopharynx (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
ciliated pseudostratified columnar. Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contains internal nares, openings for auditory tubes, and pharyngeal tonsil.
81
oropharynx (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
nonkeratinized stratified squamous. No. No. Passageway for both air and food and drink; contains opening from mouth
(fauces).
82
laryngopahrynx (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
nonkeratinized stratified squamous. No. No. Passageway for both air and food and drink.
83
larynx (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
nonkeratinized stratified squamous. above vocal folds, ciliated pseudostratified columnar below the vocal folds.
No above folds; yes below folds.
No above folds; yes below folds.
Passageway for air; contains vocal folds
for voice production.
84
trachea (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
ciliated pseudostratified columnar Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contains C-shaped rings of cartilage to keep trachea open.
85
main bronchi (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar. Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contain C-shaped rings of cartilage to maintain patency.
86
lobar bronchi (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar. Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contain plates of cartilage to maintain patency.
87
segmental bronchi (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar. Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contain plates of cartilage to maintain patency
88
larger bronchioles (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated simple columnar. Yes. Yes. Passageway for air; contain more
smooth muscle than in the bronchi.
89
smaller bronchioles (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Ciliated simple columnar. Yes. No. Passageway for air; contain more
smooth muscle than in the larger
bronchioles.
90
terminal bronchioles (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Nonciliated simple columnar. No. No. Passageway for air; contain more
smooth muscle than in the smaller
bronchioles
91
respiratory bronchioles (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Simple cuboidal to simple squamous. No. No. Passageway for air; gas exchange.
92
alveolar ducts (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Simple squamous. No. No. Passageway for air; gas exchange; produce surfactant
93
alveoli (epithelium, cilia, goblet cells, special functions)
Simple squamous. No. No. Passageway for air; gas exchange; produce surfactant to maintain patency
94
resp membrane thickness
4 layers; 0.5 um (1/16 of RBC diameter)
95
how many alveoli
300-500 million
96
ventilation-perfusion coupling
during hypoxia, all BV dilate except in lungs
vasoconstriction diverts pulmonary blood from poorly ventilated areas of the lungs to well ventilated regions for more efficient gas exchange
97
pulmonary arteries vs bronchiole arteries
from pulmonary trunk (R), give unoxygenated blood vs from aorta (L) give oxygenated blood
98
what maintains patency
bony and cartilaginous frameworks of the
nose, skeletal muscles of the pharynx, cartilages of the larynx,
C-shaped rings of cartilage in the trachea and bronchi, smooth muscle
in the bronchioles, and surfactant in the alveoli.
99
what compromises patency
crushing injuries to bone and cartilage, a deviated nasal septum, nasal polyps, inflammation of mucous membranes, spasms of smooth muscle, and a deficiency of surfactant
100
Boyle’s law
The pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container
101
compliance is related to what 2 principles
elasticity and surface tension
102
decreased compliance is seen in conditions that cause
1. lung tissue scarring (TB)
2. cause lung tissue to become filled with pulmonary fluid (pulmonary edema)
3. produce a deficiency in lung surfactant
4. impede lung expansion
103
airflow equals
pressure difference between the alveoli and the atmosphere divided by the resistance
104
eupnea
normal quiet breathing
105
costal vs diaphragmatic breathing
outward movement of the chest due to contraction of the external intercostal vs outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm
106
coughing
deep inhalation followed by a complete closure of the rima glottidis, which results in a strong exhalation that suddenly pushes the rima glottidis open and sends a blast of air through the upper respiratory passages
stimulation: foreign body lodged in the larynx, trachea, or epiglottis
107
sneezing
Spasmodic contraction of muscles of exhalation that forcefully expels air through the nose and mouth
Stimulus: irritation of the nasal mucosa
108
sighing
A long-drawn and deep inhalation immediately followed by a shorter but forceful exhalation
109
sobbing
A series of convulsive inhalations followed by a single prolonged exhalation. The rima glottidis closes earlier than normal after each inhalation so only a little air enters the lungs with each inhalation
110
crying
An inhalation followed by many short convulsive exhalations, during which the rima glottidis remains open and the
vocal folds vibrate; accompanied by characteristic facial expressions and tears
111
laughing
same as crying but facial expressions are different
112
hiccuping
Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm followed by a spasmodic closure of the rima glottidis, which produces a sharp sound on inhalation.
Stimulus: irritation of the sensory nerve endings of the GI tract
113
valsava maneuver
Forced exhalation against a closed rima glottidis as may occur during periods of straining while de
114
pressurizing the middle ear
The nose and mouth are held closed and air from the lungs is forced through the auditory tube into the middle ear
115
lung volumes vs lung capacities
can be measured directly using a spirometer vs combinations of different lung volumes
116
tidal volume (Vt)
volume of one breath
117
what percentage of tidal volume typically reaches the respiratory zone (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli) adn participates in external respiration
75 percent (350mL of a normal 500mL breath)
118
anatomic (respiratory) dead space
conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange (oter 30 percent of tidal volume)
119
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
additional inhaled air of a deep breath
about 3100 mL in an average adult male and 1900 mL in an average adult female
120
expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
normal inhalation followed by deep exhalation causing extra 1200 mL in males and 700 mL in females to be exhaled and is known as the ERV
121
minimal volume (what/determines)
air remaining after thoracic cavity is opened
determines if baby was still born (lungs dont float) or died after birth (lungs float)
122
inspiratory capacity (IC)
tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume
(500 mL + 3100 mL = 3600 mL in males and 500 mL + 1900 mL = 2400 mL in females)
123
carbon dioxide transported in blood by (least to most)
dissolved CO2
Carbamino compounds: bound to Hb=carbaminohemoglobin
Bicarbonate ions
124
chloride shift
exchange of negative ions, which maintains the electrical balance between blood plasma and RBC cytosol
HCO3− moves out into the blood plasma
Cl− move from plasma into the RBCs
125
Haldane Effect
The lower the amount of oxyhemoglobin (Hb–O2), the higher the CO2-carrying
capacity of the blood
125
how much mL of O2 is used by body cells at rest
200mL
126
respiratory center 2 principal areas
medullary respiratory center in medulla oblongata
pontine respiratory group in pons
127
medullary resp center 2 groups of neurons
dorsal resp group (DRG)
ventral resp group (VRG)
128
dorsal resp group location/function
medullary resp center
send impulses to the diaphragm by phrenic nerves and to the external intercostal muscle by intercostal nerve for normal quiet breathing (contract for 2s=inhale, relax fro 3s=exhale)
stimulate VRG during forceful inhalation
129
ventral resp group location/function
medullary resp center
contain preBötzinger complex (cluster of neurons) which control rhythm of breathing by pacemaker cells
used for forceful inhalation/exhalation
130
pontine resp group function/location
pons
transmits nerve impulses to the DRG
modifies the basic rhythm of breathing generated by the VRG, as when exercising, speaking, or sleeping
131
cortical influences on breathing (CC, hypothalamus, limbic)
CC allows us to control our breathing or stop it for some time ( PCO2
and H+ buildup stimulated DRG to start breathing again)
hypothalamus and limbic system also stimulate the respiratory center, allowing emotional stimuli to alter breathing
as, for example, in laughing and crying
132
central vs peripheral chemoreceptors (location/function/CNS or PNS)
in/near medulla oblongata, respond to H+ and/or P CO2 in cerebrospinal fluid, CNS vs in aortic/carotid bodies, respond to P O2, P CO2, and/or H+ in blood, PNS
133
increase in CO2 in blood makes cells
have a higher H+ concentration
134
hypercapnia/hypercarbia
slight increase in P CO2 (below 40 mmHG) in arterial blood because central chemoreceptors increase H+
results in less P O2 which continues to fall due to positive feedback until death
135
hyperventialtion
inhalation of more O2 and exhalation of more CO2 until PCO2 and H+ are lowered to normal
136
hypocapnia/hypocarbia
arterial P CO2 is lower than 40 mmHg
central and peripheral chemoreceptors
are not stimulated, and stimulatory impulses are not sent to the DRG
DRG neurons set their own moderate pace until CO2 accumulates and the PCO2 rises to 40 mmH
137
inflation reflex
uses baroreceptors to control stretch on external intercostals and diaphragm by inhibiting DRG
key component to infant breathing but only stimulated when the tidal volume (normally 500) is above 1500 in adults
138
