Chapter 3

Question 1

We can reject a null hypothesis when the p value is:

Answer 1

Less than 0.05.

Question 2

Define variable interval reinforcement:

Answer 2

Reinforcement of a behavior which is given at random times, this is less prone to extinction than variable ratio reinforcement, but is more resistant than fixed ratio reinforcement

Question 3

Which of the following is not an example of traditional operant conditioning?

a. A person playing on a slot machine in Vegas notices there are small occasional payouts.
b. A student stops asking questions after being berated by the teacher.
c. A fruit picker gets paid by the bushel of apples instead of by the hour.
d. After paying into social security during their career, a person retires and begins to receive social security benefits at the age of 65.

Answer 3

d - After paying into social security during their career, a person retires and begins to recieve social security benefits at the age of 65.

Question 4

Define positive punishment:

Answer 4

Positive punishment is the addition of a stimulus that causes a decrease in the target bahavior - this stimulus can be positive/negative reinforcement, positive here just means adding some stimulus to achieve the goal behavior.

Question 5

Define negative punishment:

Answer 5

Negative punishment is the removal of a favorable stimulus after the target behavior occurs. Here “negative” just means to remove a stimulus in order to achieve a target behavior. Example - taking toys aways from a small child after they threw a lego at their peer.

Question 6

Define a fixed interval schedule:

Answer 6

Reinforcement for a behavior is available after after a specific time interval - but never right away.

Question 7

Define a variable interval schedule:

Answer 7

Reinforcement for a behavior is available after a variable amount of time - but never right away.

Question 8

Define variable reinforcement:

Answer 8

The reinforcement of a behavior after a variable number of responses, and will have the greatest resistance to behavior extinction.

Question 9

Explain the differences between unconditioned, neutral, and conditioned stimuli?

Answer 9

1. Unconditioned = a stimuli that causes natural and reflexive response to a stimuli (salivating when seeing food).
2. Neutral = A stimuli that does not elicit any kind of reflexive response.
3. Conditioned response = a neutral stimuli that gets associated with an unconditioned stimuli, and produces a reflexive response over time.

Question 10

Define fixed ratio reinforcement:

Answer 10

Reinforcement that occurs after a specific number of performances of the bahavior - this has a higher likelihood to go through behavior extinction.

Question 11

Define variable ratio reinforcement:

Answer 11

Reinforcement of behaviors that occur after a variable number of responses. This is most resistant to behavior extinction.

Question 12

Define continuous reinforcement:

Answer 12

Reinforcement every time the behavior occurs - this will have the highest rate of behavior extinction, because once the reinforcement stops, the person will give up on the behavior.

Question 13

Define positive punishment:

Answer 13

A punishment where a stimulus is added in order to decrease a target behavior - this stimulus can be positive/negative reinforcement, “positive” here just means to add a stimulus.

Question 14

Define negative punishment:

Answer 14

A punishment where a favorable stimulus is removed after the target behavior occurs. “negative” just means the removal of a stimulus.

Question 15

Define operant conditioning:

Answer 15

When voluntary behaviors are modified based on rewards or punishments. This is sometimes forced (training a dog), or can be naturally learned (winning while betting). These will often include a fixed-ratio reinforcement.

Question 16

Which of the following is NOT an example of operant conditioning?

a. A person playing on a slot machine in Vegas notices there are occasional payouts.
b. A student stops asking questions after getting berated by the teacher.
c. A fruit picker gets paid by the apple bushel, rather than by the hour.
d. A person pays into social security their entire career, and at the age of 65, retires and begins getting social security benefits.

Answer 16

d - A person pays into social security their entire career, and at the age of 65, retires and begins getting social security benefits.

Question 17

Researchers repeatedly startle a participant with a loud buzzer. After some time, the participant stops being startled by the buzzer. If the researchers interupt the study with the sounds of pans banging together, which of the following would be most likely?

a. Increased startle reponse to the buzzer.
b. Decreased startle response to the buzzer.
c. No change in response to the buzzer.
d. Generalization to the previously nonaversive stimuli.

Answer 17

a - increased startle response to the buzzer.

When the person stops being startled by the buzzer they are experiencing habituation. Diahabituition to a stimuli can occur when a new unexpected stimuli is added - making the person startle again to the buzzer.

Question 18

Many pets will run to the kitchen when they hear the sound of a can opener opening a can of food. The sound of a can opener is a:

a. Unconditioned stimuli.
b. Conditioned stimuli.
c. Unconditions response.
d. Conditioned response.

Answer 18

b - conditioned stimuli.

A conditioned stimuli is when a stimuli that normally would be neutral (produce no response) is associated with an unconditioned stimuli (natural response to food), making you response to this new stimuli as it were food.

Question 19

A person suffers from food poisoning after eating a spoiled orange and later finds that the smell of lemon causes a feeling of nausea. This is an example of:

a. Discrimination.
b. Conditioned response.
c. Habituation.
d. Generalization.

Answer 19

d - generalization

The process of associated a 2nd very similar stimuli to the stimuli that elicited a response intitially. Can only occur when two stimuli are very similar.

Question 20

A rat is trained to press a lever to obtain food under a fixed-interval schedule. Which of the following behaviors is the rat going to exhibit?

a. Pressing the lever continously whenever it is hungry.
b. Pressing the level once and waiting for the food before pressing it again.
c. Pressing the lever slowly at first, but then with high frequency as the end of the interval approaches.
d. None of the above - fixed interval is too weak to cause a habit.

Answer 20

c - pressing the lever slowly at first and then with higher frequency as the end of the interval approaches.

In fixed-interval schedule, the rat will recieve food after a fixed amount of time has passed since the bahavior. Because of this, the rat will show high frequency of behavior at the end of the interval period.

Question 21

Define extinction of a behavior:

Answer 21

Loss of behavior performance when a conditioned stimuli is removed, distinguished, etc.

Question 22

Define spotaneous recovery of a behavior:

Answer 22

Spontaneous recovery occurs when after a long time passes, an extinct conditioned response can be recovered when presented with the original stimuli .

Question 23

Define generalization of stimuli:

Answer 23

Generalization will occur when a 2nd stimuli is similar enough to a conditioned stimuli to elicit the saem response - i.e. a buzzer and a clicker when dog training.

Question 24

Define discrimination of stimuli:

Answer 24

The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli, one as neutral and one as conditioned.

Question 25

In operant conditioning, when a stimuli is added and a behavior continues, this is called a: a. Positive reinforcement. b. Positive punishment. c. Negative reinforcement. d. Negative punishment.

Answer 25

Positive reinforcement.

Question 26

In operant conditioning, when a stimuli is removed and a behavior continues, this is called a: a. Positive reinforcement. b. Positive punishment. c. Negative reinforcement. d. Negative punishment.

Answer 26

Negative reinforcement (putting on sunscreen to avoid a sunburn - removing a sunburn stimuli to reinforce the behavior of putting on sunscreen.)

Question 27

In operant conditioning, when a stimuli is added and a behavior stops, this is called a: a. Positive reinforcement. b. Positive punishment. c. Negative reinforcement. d. Negative punishment.

Answer 27

Positive punishment (Adding a stimuli of jail, so criminals will not offend again)

Question 28

In operant conditioning, when a stimuli is removed and a behavior stops, this is called a: a. Positive reinforcement. b. Positive punishment. c. Negative reinforcement. d. Negative punishment.

Answer 28

Negative punishment - (Taking away privileges from a misbehaving child.)

Question 29

Compare avoidance learning and escape learning:

Answer 29

1. Avoidance learning is a change in behaviors to avoid an unpleasant thing that does not yet exists (brushing teeth to avoid cavities). 2. Escape learnign is a change in behavior to lessen an unpleasant experience that already exists (taking pain killers)

Question 30

Definition: the proces of rewarding increasingly specific behavior, in order to train a complex action.

Answer 30

Shaping.

Question 31

Definition: Learning that occurs with out a rewards, yet can be spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is presented.

Answer 31

Latent learning, .

Question 32

Compare and contrast preparedness and instinctive drift:

Answer 32

1. Preparedness = when an animals natural skills and instincts predisposes them to learn/not learn behaviors. 2. Instinctive drift = when a trained behavior goes against the animals natural instincts and is very difficult to overcome.

Question 33

What neurological structure is active when you perform a behavior and when you observe others perform a behavior, why are they important, and where is this found in the brain?

Answer 33

1. Mirror neurons. 2. Found in the parietal and frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex. 3. Provide evidence for observational learning.

Question 34

Which of the following would provide evidence against the "do as I say, not as I do" style of parenting? a. Latent learning. b. Semantic memory. c. Observational learning. d. Preparedness.

Answer 34

c - observational learning.

Question 35

In memory processing all steps will be: a. Automatic. b. Effortful. c. Controlled. d. Could be automatic or controlled.

Answer 35

d - could be automatical or contolled.

Question 36

What are the 4 methods for effortful (controlled) memory encoding?

Answer 36

1. Visual encoding. 2. Acoustic encoding - storing the way something sounds. 3. Semantic encoding - Putting information into meaningfull context. 4. Maintenence rehearsal - repeating a piece of information until it is in long-term memory.

Question 37

Which of the following is a method where information will be stored through maintance rehearsal of a mnemonic, but which they associate items on a list with real life physical locations? a. Method of loci. b. Peg-word system. c. Mnemonic. d. Chunking.

Answer 37

a - method of loci.

Question 38

**Blank** is the process of categorizing information on a list into groups of items of similar meaning, in order to perform maintence rehearsal. a. Peg-word system. b. Method of loci. c. Chunking. d. Categorical learning.

Answer 38

c - chunking.

Question 39

Blank is the process of associated items on a list with specific number that are similar to the item (tree = 3, Toe = 2, etc) to perform maintenence rehearsal. a. Peg-word system. b. Chunking. c. Method of loci. d. Categorical learning,

Answer 39

a - peg-word system.

Question 40

Someone is studying for a test and wants you advice on how to best retain large amounts of complex information. You show him your MCAT study books, and highlight which of the following methods? a. Auditory encoding. b. Semantic encoding. c. Visual encoding. d. Maintenance rehearsal.

Answer 40

b - semantic encoding.

Question 41

Someone is studying for a test and wants you advice on how to best retain large amounts of complex information. You show him your MCAT study books, and recommend **not** to use which of the following methods? ​ a. Auditory encoding. b. Semantic encoding. c. Visual encoding. d. Maintenance rehearsal.

Answer 41

a - auditory encoding.

Question 42

Defintion: The process of demonstrating that some piece of information has been retained through learning.

Answer 42

Retrival.

Question 43

Retrival of information is crucial to student success, as it procides a way to evaluate if you have incorperated this information into your long-term memory. Which of the following is not a form of retrival: a. Recalling previously learned information. b. Retroactive interference of new information. c. Recognition of concepts as information that has been presented to you previously. d. Spacing out learning efforts shows an increase in retention of info.

Answer 43

b - retroactive interference of new information.

Question 44

An elderly man presents with neurodegeneration of the brain and low acetylcholine level, presenting as severe memory loss and other physical dysfunctions. This man will most likely be diagnosed with: a. Korsakoff's disease. b. Agnosia. c. Alzheimers disease. d. Decay.

Answer 44

c - alzhiemers - a neurodegenerative condition associated with low ACH, causing memory loss.

Question 45

After an unfortunate car accident, where a woman broke one leg and obtained head injuries, she presented with an inability to recognize and percieve the faces of people she knows. She will most likely be diagnosed with: a. Korsakoff's disease. b. Agnosia. c. Alzheimers disease. d. Decay.

Answer 45

b - agnosia This can also cause loss of ability to comprehend objects or sounds, as well as people. Always due to brain damage.

Question 46

A 58 year old man reports to his primary care physician that he is having trouble forming new memories, and has forgotten his mothers name and face. His blood work shows low levels of thiamine. What condition is this man likely suffering from? a. Korsakoff's disease. b. Agnosia. c. Alzheimers disease. d. Decay.

Answer 46

a. Korsakoff's disease - thiamine defieciency and both anterograde/retrograde amensia.

Question 47

A 92 year old man reports frustration with loss of memories from his college years. The man appears very physically well for his age, and has no noticiable cognitive deficiencies upon examination. What condition is this man likely experiencing? a. Korsakoff's disease. b. Agnosia. c. Alzheimers disease. d. Decay.

Answer 47

Decay - the natural loss of memories over time.

Question 48

True or false: Aging is almost always likely to cause memory loss in less wealthy countries.

Answer 48

FALSE - aging is not **always** associated with memory loss under any conditions.

Question 49

Define confabulation in memory construction:

Answer 49

When we fill in the gaps in our memory, ultimately causing inaccurate changes to our memory long-term. This creates false memories.

Question 50

Define the misinformation effect in memory construction:

Answer 50

When other people present us with compelling misinformation it may cause us to change our memory to fit that information - creating false memories.

Question 51

Defintion: A confusion between semantic and episodic memory that results in individuals hearing another persons experience, and retaining that in their memory as their own experience.

Answer 51

Source monitoring error - leads to false memories.

Question 52

A hemisphere of the brain can be removed to prevent the recurrence of severe seizures. How would the ability of the other hemisphere to adopt functionalities of the removed section differ between a 2 year old and a 20 year old? a. The brain of the 20 y/o would be more adaptable, fur to higher neuroplasticity. b. The brain of the 20 y/o would be more adaptable, due to lower neuroplasticity. c. The brain of the 2 y/o would be more adaptable, due to higher neuroplasticity. d. The brain of the 2 y/o would be more adaptable, due to lower neuroplasticity.

Answer 52

C - the brain of the 2 y/o would be more adaptable due to higher neuroplasticity.

Question 53

The presynaptic neuron becomes more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters while receptor density increases on the postsynaptic neuron. The changes are most consistent with: a. Long-term potentiation. b. Synaptic pruning. c. An increase in neuroplasticity. d. Amenesia.

Answer 53

a - long-term potentiation. This is how long-term potentiation occurs, and is how long-term memories are formed. As synapses are reinforced (like here) neuroplasticity will actually decrease.

Question 54

Define synaptic pruning:

Answer 54

The removal of infrequently used synapses, which causes forgetting of long-term memories.