Chapter 4 Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
Both genes and environment interact to shape human _________.
A
behavior
2
Q
Gregor Mendel demonstrated that inheritance occurs through discrete units of heredity, called ______
A
genes
3
Q
Genes come in pairs, called ________, and are aligned along chromosomes
A
alleles
4
Q
A _____ is defined as a portion of a chromosome and is composed of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
A
gene
5
Q
_____ serves as a model for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
A
DNA
6
Q
_____ has: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine (CTAG)
A
DNA
7
Q
_____: has Adenine, GUanine, Cytosine and Uracil
A
RNA
8
Q
RNA/mRNA is a single-strand chemical that can serve as a template/model for
the synthesis of _________
A
proteins
9
Q
not all RNA code for proteins, many have ________ functions
A
regulatory
10
Q
Proteins determine the development of the body by: (2)
A
forming the structure and serving as enzymes
11
Q
Being __________ for a gene means that a person has an identical pair
of genes on the two chromosomes.
A
homozygous
12
Q
Being __________ for a gene means that a person has an unmatched
pair of genes on the two chromosomes.
A
heterozygous
13
Q
changes in _______ can increase or decrease expression of a gene
A
environment
14
Q
A _________ gene shows a strong effect in either the homozygous or
heterozygous condition.
A
dominant
15
Q
A _________ gene shows its effect only in the homozygous condition.
A
recessive
16
Q
An _________ gene occurs in a phenotype where there is incomplete dominance in the heterozygous condition.
A
intermediate
17
Q
high sensitivity to PTC taste is _________, so only with 2 recessive genes will someone struggle to taste it
A
dominant
18
Q
Implies that a single gene combination completely controls a characteristic, but this is not always _____
A
true
19
Q
_________ genes: all other genes except for sex-linked genes
A
Autosomal
20
Q
___________ genes: genes located on the sex chromosomes
A
Sex-linked
21
Q
female chromosome:
A
XX
22
Q
male chromosome:
A
XY
23
Q
If an X chromosome is contributed by the male, the offspring is
genetically ________.
A
female
24
Q
If a Y chromosome is contributed by the male, the offspring will be
genetically _____
A
male.
25
The human ___ chromosome has genes for far fewer proteins than the ___ chromosome.
Y, X
26
sex-linked genes usually refer to ___-linked genes (red-green color deficiency)
X
27
___________ genes are genes that are present in both sexes but mainly
have an effect on one sex
Sex-limited
28
(chest hair, breast size, etc.). EXAMPLES of what kind of gene?
Sex-limited
29
when do sex-limited genes present?
puberty
30
what activates sex-limited genes?
hormones
31
_________: a heritable change in a DNA molecule (whole thing)
Mutation
32
most mutations are ________
harmful
33
____________/_________: part of a chromosome that might appear once might appear twice or not at all
Microduplication/microdeletion
34
some researchers believe ____________ might be a result of
microduplications and microdeletions of brain-relevant genes
schizophrenia
35
__________ changes in gene expression without the modification of the DNA sequence
epigenetics
36
_______ in gene expression are central to learning and memory.
Changes
37
Epigenetic differences are a likely explanation for differences between ______ twins.
identical
38
proteins that bind DNA into a string wound around balls
histones
39
adding a methyl group turns a gene ____
on
40
removing a methyl group turns a gene ____
off
41
adding a acetyl group ________ grip and _______ expression
loosen's, facilitates
42
removing a acetyl group ________ grip and _______ expression
tightens, silences
43
genetic effects and experiential effects are ____ to distinguish
hard
44
epigenetic changes can be ______ for at least a generation or 2 (stressed male = offspring w a weakened hormonal response)
inheirited
45
severe trauma = decreases _______ of brain genes = increases risk of PTSD and depression
myelination
46
_______: how much characteristics depend on genetic differences
heritability
47
Heritability of a certain trait is specific to a given ___________.
population
48
______ environmental influences may cause genetic influences to have less of an effect.
Strong
49
Almost all behaviors have _______ a genetic and an environmental
component.
both
50
heredity and environment can be studied via: (3)
1. monozygotic and dizygotic twins
2. adopted children
3. "virtual twins" adopted from diff mother
51
Traits with a strong hereditary influence can by modified by
____________ intervention (PKU)
environmental
52
Genes do not ___________ produce behaviors.
directly
53
Genes produce proteins that ________ the probability that a behavior will develop under certain circumstances.
increase
54
Genes can alter your environment by producing behaviors or traits that alter how people in your environment react to you. This is an example of an ________ affect
indirect
55
_________ refers to a change in the frequency of various genes in a
population over generations
Evolution
56
Evolution attempts to answer two questions:
− How did some species ______?
-- How do species evolve?
evolve
57
How species evolve rests upon some assumptions:
− Offspring generally resemble their ______ for genetic reasons.
− Mutations, recombination, and microduplications of genes introduce new ________ variations.
− Certain individuals successfully _________ more than others.
parents
heritable
reproduce
58
_________ ______: choosing individuals with desired traits and making them parents of the next generation
Artificial Selection
59
According to Darwin, nature also _________ , and successful individuals’
genes will be prevalent in later generations.
selects
60
“The use or disuse of some structure or behavior
causes an increase or decrease in that behavior.”
Lamarckian evolution
61
common misconceptions about evolution:
1. use it or ___ it
2. humans have ______ evolving
3. evolution means ________
4. evolution acts to benefit the ______ or the species
lose
stopped
improvement
individual
62
evolution improves ______ (# of copies of genes that are present in later generations)
fitness
63
genes that increase fitness @ one time might by disadvantageous in other situations EX: ________
peacock tails
64
evolution does NOT benefit the individual or species, it benefits the _____
genes
65
Focuses upon functional and evolutionary explanations of how behaviors
evolved
Evolutionary Psychology
66
Assumes that behaviors, characteristic of a species, have arisen through natural selection and provide a survival advantage.
Evolutionary Psychology
67
if infant survival is questionable, if there is a grandma nearby (best if daughter's mom) SIGNIFICANTLY increased infant chance of survival: _____________ __________
grandmother effect
68
________ selection : controversial hypothesis that states that altruistic groups survive better than less cooperative ones
Group
69
____ selection: more plausible; selection for a gene benefits the
individual’s relatives
Kin
70
The idea is that individuals help those who will return the favor. Building a reputation for helpfulness only works if others are willing to cooperate with you.
reciprocal altruism
71
Brain development depends upon: (2)
− Maturation
− Learning
72
The human central nervous system begins to form when the embryo is
approximately ___ weeks old.
2
73
__________ genes: regulate expression of other genes and control the start of anatomical development, all share a long sequence of DNA, mutations here have BIG changes
homeobox
74
The dorsal surface _________, forming a neural tube surrounding a fluid-filled cavity.
thickens
75
The forward end enlarges and ___________ into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.
differentiates
76
The rest of the neural tube becomes the _________ ________.
spinal cord (+ ventricles)
77
if the neural tube doesn't close = ____ ____
spina bifida
78
at ___ weeks, we can tell the embryo is a human because of the large frontal cortex
11
79
first muscle movement is at ____ weeks, driven by spontaneous activity in the spinal cord
7.5
80
81
movements start _____ sensations
before
82
* At birth, the human brain weighs approximately _____ grams.
* By the first year, the brain weighs approximately ______ grams.
* The adult brain weighs 1200–1400 grams.
350, 1000
83
In early infancy, primary ______ areas of the cortex are more _____ than the prefrontal cortex
sensory, mature
84
The development of neurons in the brain involves the following
processes: (5)
proliferation
migration
differentiation
myelination
synaptogenesis
85
_____ cells have differentiated, they migrate
after
86
The production of new cells/neurons in the brain primarily occurs early in life
proliferation
87
what is the only process that stops before birth?
proliferation
88
PROLIFERATION: early in development, the cells lining the __________ divide
ventricles
89
The movement of the newly formed neurons and glia to their eventual
locations via a ___________ trail (slug)
migration, chemical
90
Chemicals known as __________ and ___________ guide neuron migration.
immunoglobulins, chemokines
91
if there is a deficit of guiding chemicals (immunoglobins and chemokines), impaired migration = _____ brain size and ________ deficits
smaller, intellectual
92
The forming of the axon and dendrites that gives the neuron its
distinctive shape
differentiation
93
differentiation takes a ______ time ex: prefrontal cortex finishes at 25
long
94
DIFFERENTIATION: ____ cells become specific to new function
stem
95
The axon grows first either during migration or once it has reached its
target and is followed by the development of the ________.
dendrites
96
The process by which glia produce the fatty sheath that covers the axons of some neurons
myelination
97
myelination still occurs after cells have _________ it's like a golden ticket
differentiated
98
myelination: _____occurs in the spinal cord and then in the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
First
99
Synaptogenesis: ______ significantly later in the lifetime AND formation of dendritic branches decreases
Slows
99
The final stage of neural development—the formation of the synapses between neurons
Synaptogenesis
99
Synaptogenesis: Occurs throughout ____ as neurons are constantly forming new connections and discarding old ones
life
99
_______ _____: undifferentiated cells found in the interior of the brain that generate “daughter cells” that can transform into glia or neurons
Stem cells
100
Myelination: Occurs gradually for __________ and can be modified by certain types of learning
decades
101
Originally believed that no new neurons were formed after early
development BUT new _______ receptors continually replace dying ones
olfactory
101
Stem cells differentiate into new neurons in the adult __________ of mammals and facilitate learning.
hippocampus
102
the nose has cells that remain ______ throughout life
immature
103
how can we tell how old neurons are?
14C (radioactive isotope of carbon)
104
skin cells are the newest: under a _____ old
heart cells: are as old as the _____
cerebral cortexes form few or no new neurons after _____
use this info to study 14C levels and age of neurons
year, person, birth
105
Sperry’s (1954) research with newts indicated that axons follow a
the chemical trail to reach their appropriate target.
106
Growing axons reach their target area by following a gradient of
chemicals in which they are ________ by some chemicals and __________ by others.
attracted, repelled
107
the salamander/newt 5th leg moved in sync with the other legs because the _______ found the muscle
axons
108
after cutting a newt's optic nerve on the dorsal side and rotating it 180o, the axons grew to the area responsible for vision in the ______retina
dorsal
109
When axons initially reach their targets, they form ________ with several cells.
synapses
110
__________ cells strengthen connection with some cells and eliminate connections with others.
Postsynaptic
111
The formation or elimination of these connections depends on the ________ of input from incoming axons.
pattern
112
we start with more neurons than we can keep, selection process keeps the most successful combinations and reject others
Neural Darwinism
113
Mutations in the genes are RANDOM events but _________steer axonal branches and synapses in approx right direction
neurotrophins
114
Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles do not determine how many axons form; they determine how many ________.
survive
115
_________ __________ ________ (NGF) is a type of protein released by muscles that promotes the survival and growth of axons.
Nerve growth factor
116
if a muscle doesn't receive ____ it degenerates and dies
NGF
117
The brain’s system of overproducing neurons and then applying ________ enables the exact matching of the number of incoming axons to the number
of receiving cells.
apoptosis
118
NGF ________ apoptosis
cancels
119
Chemicals that promote the survival and activity of neurons
neurotrophins
120
in addition to NGF, NS responds to ________-_______ _______ ______ (BDNF) and other neurotrophins
brain-derived neurotrophic factor
121
if an axon doesn't connect to an appropriate _________ cell by a certain age, neuron kills itself
postsynaptic
122
Axons that are not exposed to neurotropins after making connections undergo __________
apoptosis
122
neurotrophins are biochemicals that __________ functioning
increase
123
The elimination of massive cell ______ is part of normal development and
maturation.
death
124
After maturity, the apoptotic mechanisms become ________.
dormant
125
if cortical neurons are not getting input from incoming axons, they ___
die
126
malnutrition, toxic chemicals and infections can ______ the brain especially in it's vulnerable times
damage
127
Results of ________ _________ syndrome
− Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
− Difficulty maintaining attention
− Varying degrees of mental retardation
− Motor problems and heart defects
− Facial abnormalities
fetal alchohol
128
FAS = decrease in _______ = ______ ability to send APs = turns on ______ // because alcohol ________ glutamate receptors and enhances ________ receptors = _____ in net excitation = less exposure to ________ = apoptosis
myelination, decreases, apoptosis, inhibits, GABA, decrease, neurotrophins
129
Immature neurons transplanted to a developing part of the cortex develop the properties of the ____ location.
new
130
Neurons transplanted at a later stage of development develop some new properties but retain some ____ properties. ex: ferret
old
131
Axons and dendrites continue to ______ their structure and connections throughout the lifetime.
modify
132
The gain and loss of spines indicate new connections, which relates to
________. (ex: jigsaw puzzle)
learning
133
Rats raised in an enriched environment develop a _______ cortex, increased dendritic branching and improved learning.
thicker
134
As old neurons die by apoptosis and new ones form to take their place, there is improved learning and _______.
memory
135
It was once believed that teaching a child a difficult concept (e.g., Greek,
advanced math, etc.) would enhance intelligence in other areas.
“far transfer.”
136
The brain _______ be “exercised” like a muscle.
cannot
137
The _________ lobe of professional musicians in the right hemisphere is 30 percent larger than non-musicians.
temporal
138
− The fingers of musicians who practice extensively become clumsy, fatigued easily, and make involuntary movements.
− This condition is a result of extensive _____________ of the sensory thalamus and cortex so that touch responses to one finger overlap those of another.
Focal hand dystonia or “musicians cramp”
reorganization
139
Adolescents tend to be _______ impulsive than adults.
more
140
Some neurons lose their synapses, and the remaining synapses change
more _______ than before in response to experiences.
slowly
141
A _______ head injury refers to a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain. (MOST COMMON IN YOUNG ADULTS)
closed
142
A stroke or cerebrovascular accident is temporary loss of _______ flow to the brain.
blood
143
_________: the most common type of stroke, resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an artery
Ischemia
144
__________: a less frequent type of stroke resulting from a ruptured
artery
Hemorrhage
145
Neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other
chemicals.
hemorrhagic stroke
146
both kind of strokes can cause _______ : the accumulation of fluid in the brain resulting in increased pressure on the brain and increasing the probability of further strokes
edema
147
edema + disruption of Na/K pump = accumulation of ____ inside cell = release of excess _________ = overstimulate neurons = damage
Na+, glutamate
148
Excess positive ions in the neuron block metabolism in the __________ and kill the neuron.
mitochondria
149
drug called tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) breaks up _____ ____
and can reduce the effects of an ischemic strokes.
blood clots
150
begun to attempt to save neurons from death by stroke by blocking:
− ________ synapses
− ________ entry
Glutamate, Calcium
151
One of the most effective laboratory methods used to minimize damage caused by strokes is to ______ the brain. Reduces __________, apoptosis and inflammation
cool, overstimulation
152
Cannabanoids have also been shown to potentially minimize cell loss after a brain stroke if taken ______ the stroke
before
153
decreased activity of surviving neurons after damage to other
neurons
Diaschisis:
154
Destroyed ____ _________cannot be replaced, but damaged axons do grow back under certain circumstances.
cell bodies
155
Damaged axons do not readily regenerate in a mature mammalian brain or spinal cord.
− Scar tissue makes a __________ barrier to axon growth.
− Neurons on the two sides of the cut pull apart.
− Glia cells that react to CNS damage release chemicals (________) that inhibit axon growth.
mechanical
chondrotins
156
new branches formed by other non-damaged axons that attach to vacant receptors
collateral sprouts
157
Cells that have lost their source of innervation release _________ that induce axons to form collateral sprouts.
neurotrophins
158
if a brain area loses some of it's incoming axons we can expect, denervation supersensitivity and ________ ________
collateral sprouting
159
the heightened sensitivity to a
neurotransmitter after the destruction of an incoming axon
Denervation supersensitivity
160
Denervation supersensitivity can cause ______ pain by strengthening undesirable connections (ex: phantom limb)
chronic
161
as one set of synapses _______ another _______
strengthens, weakens
162
The cortex reorganizes itself after the amputation of a body part by
becoming responsive to other parts of the body.
phantom limb
163
limbs that have lost their afferent sensory input
Deafferentated limb
164
therapy focuses on what they are capable of doing
Deafferentated limb
