Chapter 4 Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
cooperative principle
A
a psycholinguistic term that assumes that we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively when engage in a conversation
2
Q
Grice’s four maxims that guide cooperative principle conversations are
A
quality, quantity, relevance, and manner
3
Q
maxim of quality
A
all of these:
- tell the truth
- a communicative presumption that suggests that we tell each other the truth when we engage in a conversation
4
Q
maxim of quantity
A
all of these:
- say about as much as appropriate for the situation
- a communicative presumption that suggests that we contribute an appropriate amount of talk when we engage in a conversation
- In normal conversations, two speakers are generally expected to contribute equally.
- In some contexts, it is appropriate for one person to dominate the conversation. For example: interviewee in a television interview/talk show; a client in a therapy session
5
Q
maxim of relevance
A
all of these:
- stick to the topic
- a communicative presumption that suggests that our discussion is relevant to the conversation
6
Q
maxim of manner
A
all of these:
- speak to your partner in an appropriate manner
- a communicative presumption that suggests that we are clear in our language and that we pay attention to normal standards of conversation, such as not shouting at someone who is right in front of us
7
Q
In the United States, the appropriate distance between two people engaging in a typical conversation is about
A
1 1/2 feet. It would violate the maxim of manner to stand 6 inches from that person’s face, and it would also be a violation if you were to stand 10 feet away
8
Q
maxim of relations with conversation partner
A
a communicative presumption that suggests that we use our previous relationship with our conversation partner so that we do not have to repeat shared experiences
9
Q
maxim of rule violations
A
a communicative presumption that suggests that we signal our conversational partners when we are about to engage in a violation of one of the other maxims
10
Q
Different cultures can have different conversational rules, but they likely have similar general maxims that guide their behavior. The greatest variation occurs in
A
the maxim of manner because differ rules govern what is an appropriate and or an inappropriate manner.
11
Q
proxemics
A
personal space in conversations
12
Q
Conversational partners in other cultures tend to stand or sit closer to each other when interacting than do those in the
A
United States and other Western countries
13
Q
Asians tend to stand farther away from each other while talking than their
A
American counterparts
14
Q
When talking with someone from a different culture, a person can find it
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difficult to determine a comfortable talking distance
15
Q
kinesics
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bodily movements in conversations, including hand gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact
16
Q
People of different cultures tend seem to engage in varying levels of
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eye contact
17
Q
People from Arabic cultures tend to gaze longer and more directly than do
A
the people from the United States
18
Q
Within the United States, African Americans gaze less directly than their
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European American counterparts do. American Indians tend to make even less eye contact and prefer a side-by-side orientation to a face-to-face orientation
19
Q
Not having a great deal of eye contact is
A
different from avoiding eye contact
20
Q
There are cultural differences in avoidance of eye contact when there is a
A
conflict. This is a NEGLECT STYLE of dealing with conflict
21
Q
In general, smiling is an indication of happiness, liking, and other positive feelings. However, Asian cultures may also use smiling as a way of
A
discharging uncomfortable feelings
22
Q
Kinesics tend to be more synchronized in
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collectivistic cultures. In individualistic cultures, people are allowed to do their own thing and not coordinate their movements with others as much
23
Q
Collectivistic cultures will foster emotional displays of their members that maintain and facilitate group cohesion, harmony, or cooperation, to a greater degree than
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individualistic cultures
24
Q
paralanguage
A
nonverbal vocal cues in conversations, such as loudness of voice, silences, and rates of speech
25
The aspect of paralanguage that lends itself to the most cultural variation of meaning is
silence
26
In the United States, silences are often signals for the receiver of a message to contribute to the conversation. When silences last too long, people in the United States often become
uncomfortable
27
pregnant pause
the discomfort one feels when the conversation has come to a halt and there is an extended period during which neither conversational partner contributes to the conversation
28
Some cultures (Russian, Spanish) view silence as
agreement among the conversational partners.
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Asian cultures view silence as a sign of
respect for elders
30
For American Indians, silences are a way of gathering one's thoughts, so breaking the silence merely disrupts their
train of thoughts
31
high-context communication
all of these:
1. communication in which the context conveys much of the meaning
2. most of the information is either in a physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message
32
low-context communication
all of these:
1. language-dependent communication, in which the words carry most of the meaning and context plays a lesser role
2. the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code
33
Although no culture is exclusively high-context communication or low-context communication, cultures fall on a
continuum between high and low context
34
Communication in the United States tends to be at the
low-context end of the HC-LC continuum
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Many Asian countries tend to be at the
high end of the HC-LC continuum
36
E.T. Hall connects the Asian dependence on context to the Chinese written language. Thus, other countries whose written languages are derivations of the Chinese language are
high-context communication countries
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One advantage of high-context communication is
it allows individuals to avoid confrontations and save face as a result
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Direct questioning in high-context communication countries is considered a sign of immaturity because
it causes both parties to lose face
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S. Elliot and associates found that people who talked less and allowed context to communicate more were seen as more attractive in
collectivistic cultures
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According to Ting-Toomey, face involves the claimed sense of
self-respect or self-dignity in an interactive situation
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Saving face is
preserving one's dignity when interacting with another person or when being viewed or evaluated in a public context
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direct communication
blunt communication that is literal and to the point
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direct communication is related to low-context communication because
the message is contained in the language used
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indirect communication
communication that relies on context and the receiver's ability to draw inferences
45
indirect speech acts are used because they convey a degree of
politeness in communication. As such, they are universal
46
East Asian orientations
process orientation, differentiated linguistic codes, indirect communication emphasis, and receiver centered
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process orientation
communication is perceived as a process of infinite interpretation
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differentiated linguistic codes
different linguistic codes are used depending on the persons involved and situations
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indirect communication emphasis
the use of indirect communication is prevalent and accepted as normative
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receiver centered
meaning is in the interpretation. Emphasis is on the listening, sensitivity, and the removal of preconception
51
North American orientations
outcome orientation, less differentiated linguistic codes, direct communication emphasis, and sender centered
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outcome orientation
communication is perceived as the transference of messages
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less differentiated linguistic codes
linguistic codes are not as extensively differentiated as in East Asia
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direct communication emphasis
direct communication is a norm despite the extensive use of indirect communication
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sender centered
meaning is in the messages created by the sender. Emphasis is on how to formulate the best messages, how to improve source credibility, and how to improve delivery skills
56
seven issues of importance when African American participants interacted with European Americans
negative stereotyping, acceptance, personal expressiveness, authenticity, understanding, goal attainment, and power dynamics. These issues are not different from those of other groups, but they are more important when European Americans interact with African Americans and serve as the context within which the communication occurs
57
negative stereotyping
according to Ribeau and associates, stereotyping that casts African Americans in a negative light, or that limits discussion to "African American topics" such as athletics and music
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acceptance
the feeling that one is accepted as an equal in the conversation
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personal expressiveness
speaking from the heart and not the head
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authenticity
being truthful and not trying to be merely politically correct
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understanding
according to Ribeau and associates, the sense that a conversational partner has enough experience to truly understand the African American experience
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goal attainment
according to Ribeau and associates, this refers to the goal of mutual understanding between two conversational partners.
63
power dynamics
according to Ribeau and associates, this refers to the powerlessness and assertiveness in conversations with African Americans. Sometimes, African Americans can feel powerless when conversing with European American conversational partners.
64
To respond to the power dynamics, African Americans may use
code switch or doing the dozens
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code switching
switch from the mutual conversational rules to African American rules, such as Black English or others such verbiage. It is also known as playing the part or SNAP! culture. In code switching, African Americans can regain a sense of control over the conversation
66
doing the dozens
a game in which some African Americans (particularly males) engage. In this game, they attempt to one-up their conversational partners by putting them down or making fun of them (i.e. yo mama jokes). This is not universal among African Americans, but it is popular among many, and most African Americans at least understand the game being played
67
Within the African American community, another type of power dynamics is in play. That is when some African Americans accuse other African Americans of
acting White or not acting Black enough. This is one of the most negative accusations one African American adolescent can hurl at another
68
Latinxs tend to be from a
contact culture. They tend to touch their conversational partners more
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Related to contact is emotional expressiveness, with contact cultures expressing more interpersonal warmth and low-contact cultures being more
interpersonally cool
70
One interesting aspect of Latinx communication is the use of
proverbs, sayings, and metaphors. These proverbs (or dichos) are used to transmit important values
71
To American Indians, time is often considered in terms of
eras instead of chronology
72
American Indians tend to engage in less eye contact, and direct eye contact with someone who is an elder is considered a sign of
disrespect
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the major motivation of grandparent-grandchild interaction is the desire by the grandparents to
transmit knowledge based on their lives and history
74
one rising difference in communication patterns between young adults and older adults is the use of
social media
75
consuming media includes
watching online videos, listening to music, and engaging in other forms of technology
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a criticism of today's social media usage is that such forms of communication can cause
shallow thinking aka shallowing hypothesis. Individuals who used texting or social media frequently were concomitantly less likely to be reflective in thought. This has implications for lowering moral standards because one is less likely to understand the implications of one's actions if one is less likely to reflect on one's thoughts
77
one of the most negative aspects of social media can be
the bullying that some children receive
78
women's communication occurs within a context of
sexism
79
tag questions
questions added to a statement of assertion, such as "This is good, don't you think?"
80
Men and women have
different communication styles
81
Two forms commonly used by more women than men
tag questions and qualifiers
82
qualifiers
words or phrases that soften statements, such as "I may be wrong, but..."
83
Women's communication
| do not apply to all women
all of these:
1. tend to use indirect forms of communication
2. disclose more about themselves than men do
3. tend to match their experiences with the experiences of others to show understanding and sympathy
4. tend to use more tentative judgement
84
Men's communication
| do not apply to all men
all of these:
1. tend to use direct forms of communication
2. disclose less about themselves than women do
3. tend to try to compete with or outdo their conversational partners
4. tend to be more assertive and confident in their speech
85
Gay (2012) found that when men used female speech, they tended to
lose status among conversational partners.
86
In summarizing Hoyenga's review of gender and communication, Gay (2012) wrote, "They report that feminine communication styles are associated with less intelligent, passivity, and submissiveness while masculine styles evoke
notions of power, authority, confidence, and leadership
87
Wood (1999) emphasized that gender differences in communication are more a product of
socialization than of biology. Paludi (1998) suggested that this socialization occurs very early because parents respond measurably differently to boys and girls
88
Two sources of such socialization
family communication and communication between playmates
89
Most people in the world are
bilingual or multilingual
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additive bilingualism
the acquisition of a second language that does not replace the native language
91
subtractive bilingualism
the acquisition of a second language that replaces the native language
92
language attrition
equivalent to subtractive bilingualism. It occurs when a language is used infrequently, even when the first language is well ingrained
93
native bilingualism
the ability to speak two languages from birth, acquired because both languages are spoken in the household
94
cognitive consequences of bilingualism
all of these:
1. having smaller vocabularies
2. having more tip-of-the-tongue experiences
3. generate few words in timed tasks than did monolingual individuals
4. better performance in nonverbal tasks that require conflict resolution
5. some degree of protection against cognitive decline (i.e. contract dementia 4 years after than monolingual individuals)
95
Problems can occur in the classroom if the second language is not as
highly developed as the home language
96
acquiring a second language changes the brain locations of certain concepts or at least causes a change in
category clustering of concepts
97
Bilingualism changes
brain structure
98
Although popular wisdom has it that children acquire second languages faster than adults do, systematic investigations prove otherwise. This is true for
both formal and informal acquisition of the language. However, older learners may be more fossilized in their native languages, so accents from the first language will persist into their second languages. Thus, an older learner's mastery of the second language may be inferior to that of a younger learner
99
limited English proficiency and English-language learner
have negative connotations because they suggest that these people are in the process of learning English but will not become fluent. Garcia and Kleifgen prefer the term emergent bilinguals
100
emergent bilinguals
means that the individuals will ultimately become proficient in two languages
101
Garcia and Kleifgen listed these extra positive aspects of being bilinguals, in addition to those already listed by Bialystok and Craik
all of these:
1. have a greater analytic orientation to language (aka metalinguistic awareness)
2. have a greater flexibility of perceptions and interpretations to describing the world, resulting in greater creativity
3. better at gauging communicative situations, such as if someone is hesitant about a suggestion or merely thinking through the suggestion. This creative flexibility can lead to playfulness with languages
102
social consequences of bilingualism
If you speak a particular language, you may feel an instant connection with someone else who speak that language. You may have observed people who seem to have such connection with one another when they are speaking their native language
