Chapter 4- Approaches

Question 1

Describe Wundt’s contribution to behavioural psychology:

Answer 1

• Wundt is known as father of psychology - moved from philosophical roots to controlled research
• Set up first psychology lab in Liepzig, Germany in 1870s
• Promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes.
• **Introspection = ** systematic analysis of own conscious experiment of a stimulus
• An experience was analysed in temrs of its component parts, e.g. sensations, emotional reaction
• His work paved the way for later controlled research and study of mental processes.

Question 2

Outline Wundt’s scientific method to investigate the human mind.

Answer 2

• First to open lab designated to scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions
• = accurate measurements and replication
• focus was trying to understand psychological processes than philosophical/biological processes.
• later realised that higher mental processes were difficult to study using his procedures
• ….. encouraged others to pave new ways of approaching them, e.g. scanning
• introspection is commonly used today, e.g. therapy and studying emotional states

Question 3

Evaluate Wundt’s scientific method to investigate the human mind:

Answer 3

One strength of Wundt’s work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled.
All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible
extraneous variables were not a factor. Procedures and instructions were standardised so all participants received same information and were tested in same way.
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered crucial to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach.

One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today.
Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective (influenced by a personal perspective). Also participants may have hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. And general laws are useful to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science.
This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry.

Question 4

Outline the ‘scientific method’:

Answer 4

• Step 1: ask a Q
• Step 2: state a hypothesis
• Step 3: conduct an experiment
• Step 4: analyse results
• Step 5: Make conclusion
• Focus on being objective
• Reflection on sensations, feeling, images
• Wundt would ask people to focus on everyday object + look inwards noticing sensations and feelings and images
• breaking thoughts about object down to separate elements
• systematic reporting of experience of object
• specific examples, e.g. metronome.

Question 5

What are some weaknesses of introspection?

Answer 5

• Behaviourist psychologists such as Watson questioned scientific status of introspection as it produced subjective data. The PPs were recalling their own conscious thoughts meaning results vary from PP to PP.
• Conscious thoughts are mental processes that cannot be observed and measured. A truly scientific psychology should be focussing on phenomenon that can be observed and measured. = empirical methods

Question 6

Evaluate the ‘Scientific Method’:

Answer 6

• Strength: knowledge acquired is accurate and produces facts due to controlled studies. Once cause is established, treatments can develop.
• Strength: allows the causes of behaviour to be established and theories developed - these can be tested and modified
• Weakness: focusses on being objective and conducting research in highly controlled environments, lacks mundane realism, can findings be generalised to everyday life?
• Weakness: Certain areas of mind cannot be observed therefore cannot be measured using scientific method. Tells us little about how people behave in natural environment. Limited method.

Question 7

What is structuralism?

Answer 7

Wilhelm Wundt developed the idea that the structure of the human mind was to be studied by breaking down behaviours into basic elements.

Question 8

What IS introspection?

Answer 8

PPs asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them.

Question 9

Describe the origins of psychology from 1879 to 1900s:

Answer 9

Question 10

Describe the origins of psychology from 1913 to 1950s:

Answer 10

Question 11

Describe the origins of psychology from 1960s to the 1980s:

Answer 11

Question 12

Behavioural Approach: who came up with classical conditioning and outline it, with example:

Answer 12

Pavlov
2 previously unconnected stimuli paired together repeatedly. One called UCS - provokes unlearned response, other called NS, which provokes no response.
Learing occurs when 2 stimuli are associated with each other. Eventually, NS alone will produce same behavioural response as UCS.
= CS ——-> CR

Question 13

Behavioural Approach: who came up with Operant Conditioning and outline it.

Answer 13

Question 14

Evaluate behaviourist approach:

Answer 14

Question 15

Outline B.F. Skinner’s expt:

Answer 15

Skinner conducted experiments with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called Skinner boxes.

Every time the rat activated a lever (or pecked a disc in the case of the pigeon) within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour.

(B) Skinner also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, for example an electric shock.

Question 16

Outline Ivan Pavlov’s experiment:

Answer 16

Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food.
Gradually, Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound.
Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus, in this case a bell, can come to elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association.

Question 17

SLT: who came up with theory, briefly outline the theory and describe the 4 mediational processes:

Answer 17

Question 18

SLT: what is identification?

Answer 18

Question 19

SLT: Outline Bandura’s BOBO doll expt:

Answer 19

Bandura (1961)
recorded behaviour of young children who watched an Adult behave in aggressive way towards Bobo doll. Adult hit hammer at Bobo doll and shouted abuse to it.
Later, children observed interacting with Bobo Doll + found to act more aggressively towards Doll than children who observed non-aggressive adult.

Imitation + motor reproduction + identification + role models

Question 20

Evaluate SLT by Bandura:

Answer 20

• Strength: Cognitive Factors accounted; neither CC or OpC can offer adequate account of learning processes of individuals (free will). SLT suggests that humans + animals store info about behaviour of others and use this to make judgement about when it is appropraite to perform certain actions = non-reductionist approach. NOT LIKE A MACHINE (non-machine-reductionist approach). *Bandura says that learning would be hazardous if people relied solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. From observing others, people form idea of how to do new behaviour = guide for action. *
• COUNTERPOINT!: Weakness: too little reference of influence of biological factors in SLT. Bandura thought learning dependent on environmental stimuli. Recent studies suggest observational learning is result or mirror neurons in brain. THEREFORE, biological processes deeply under emphasised in SLT.
• ISSUES WITH BOBO DOLL study - similar to that of behavioural approach. SLT evidence gathered through Lab Expts. Many of Bandura’s ideas developed through observation of young children in lab = contrived nature = demand char + lack of mundane realism (therefore lower internal and external validity)
• Explained = main purpose of bobo doll is to hit it (it was a punchbag), children behaved in way they thought was expected of them. THEREFORE, research tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
• Strength: SLT principles applied to real life behaviours. SLT has advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles (modelling, imitation, reinforcement) can account for how children learn from other around them, including media. E.g. gender role, boys = blue, girls = pink. THEREFORE, increases value of approach and accounts for real-world behaviour.

Question 21

Cog Approach: What is MRI?

Question 22

Cog Approach: What is fMRI?

Answer 22

Question 23

Cog Approach: What is a PET scan?

Answer 23

Question 24

Cog Approach: What is an EEG?

Answer 24

Question 25

Cog Approach: What are the main assumptions made?

Answer 25

• Cognitive approach argues that internal processes should be studied scientifically
• the cognitive approach has investigated those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists, such as memory, perception and thinking.
• These processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people’s minds.
• Cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about way mental processes operate on basis of observed behaviour. Making a logical conclusion on basis of evidence and reasoning

Question 26

Cognitive Approach: what is the role of schema?

Answer 26

• “blueprint”
• package of beliefs and expectations on a topic that came from prior experience
• They are useful by helping us to take shortcuts in thinking and prevents us being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
• Born with basic schema (sucking and grasping), develops with experience
• Can lead to faulty conclusions and unhelpful behaviour.
• Can distort our interpretations of sensory info = perceptual errors.

Question 27

Cognitive Approach: what is the role of computer models?

Answer 27

• Development of computers and computer programming led to focus on way that sensory info is passed through system. Using** computer analogy**, info is passed through senses, encoded into memory, then combined with previously stored info to complete task.

= input —> process ——> output

Question 28

What is the significance of cognitive neuroscience emerging?

Answer 28

• 1860s Paul Broca- identified how damaged area of frontal lobe (= Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production.
• It is only in the last twenty years, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. E.g, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory, Tulving et al. (1994) were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex.
• As well as this, the system in overall charge of WMM - the central executive - is thought to reside in a similar area (Braver et al. 1997).

Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some
mental disorders. E.g., link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD is discussed. It appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions.
This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.

One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court!

Question 29

Evaluate Cognitive Approach:

Answer 29

• C.A. can be criticised for being machine reductionist, which means it implies the human mind and thinking machines like computers are alike. This suggests that humans have inputs, outputs, storage systems + CPU. Machine reductionism ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on cognitive system. Research has found that human memory is affected by emotional factors, such as E.W.T. THEREFORE machine reductionisms may weaken validity of C.A. theory.
• Strength: C.A. explains behaviour using soft determinism, which is the view that human behaviour determined by internal and external factors, but we can exert free will at times. This = INTERACTIONIST APPROACH, = more flexible, facotrs for multi- components in cognitive approach = multiple explanations. THEREFORE higher internal validity
• C.A. uses objective, scientific methods = highly controlled, rigorous methods of studying cognition = allows accurate inference of cognitive processes. Lab Study = reliable and objective data. THEREFORE, credible scientific basis and therefore reliable.
• HOWEVER, C.A. relies on inferences of cognitive processes - not a direct observation. Too abstract and theoretical nature. Lab Study = contrived nature, artificial stimuli, not representative of everyday experience THEREFORE lacks external validity

Question 30

Psychodynamic approach: what is the role of the unconscious?

Answer 30

Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious-
a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour and personality. The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, or locked away and forgotten (DEFENCE MECHANISMS)

These can be accessed during dreams or through ‘slips of the tongue’ (what Freud referred to as parapraxes).

Under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired.

The part of our mind that we know about and are aware of- the conscious mind- is merely the ‘tip of the iceberg’.

Question 31

Psychodynamic Approach :describe the Tripartite ‘Structure of Personality’ (id,ego,sego)

Answer 31

1. Id: primitive, pleasure principle- gets what it wants (libido-sexual energy), unconscious drives + instincts, present at birth, ‘selfish’, demands instant gratification of its needs.
2. Ego: ‘reality principle’, mediator, developed @ 2y/o, reduces conflict between id and sego, uses defence mechanisms.
3. Superego: end of phallic stage (around 5 y/o), neurotic, requires socialisation, internalised sense of right and wrong, ‘morality principle’, moral standards of child’s same sex parents, punishes ego for wrongdoing (guilt)

Question 32

Psychodynamic Approach: describe the psychosexual stages:

Answer 32

Question 33

Describe the Oedipal complex:

Answer 33

Stage 1: The boy develops sexual desire for his mother, who has always been source of pleasure to him
Stage 2: The boy becomes jeolous of his father who sexually possesses his mother. He fears his father will castrate him if he finds out about his desires.
Stage 3: The boy is in a state of conflict. He deals with this by internalising his father, who becomes his superego.
Stage 4: Boy substitutes his desire for his mother with desire for other women.

Question 34

Describe the Electra Complex:

Answer 34

Stage 1: Girl realises she has no penis and blames mother for this, anger, and starts to sexually desire her father who has one.
Stage 2: Girl’s anger towards mother is compounded by jealousy she feels because her mother sexually possesses her father
Stage 3: Girl realises she can have naither father nor penis. Deals with this by internalising her mother, who becomes her superego
Stage 4: Girl substitutes her desire for penis with desire for baby, preferably a boy, and her desire for father for desire for other men.

Question 35

What are the three defence mechanisms?

Answer 35

1. Denial: refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
2. Repression: forcing distressing memory out of unconscious mind
3. Displacement: transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto substitute target.

Question 36

Evaluate the Psychodynamic approach:

Answer 36

• Strength: Freud introduced idea of psychotherapy (psychoanalysis) to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. Tehniques involve dream analysis (looking into unconscious), brings repressed emotions to conscious mind. Formed basis of modern therapy, talking therapy (catharsis) counselling…. THEREFORE value of psychodynamic approach high and real-life value.
• COUNTERPOINT: psychoanalysis regarded an inappropriate, harmful for people experiencing serious psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Symptoms include paranoia + delusional thinking so articulate thoughts as required by psychoanalysis. THEREFORE, Freudian therapy and theory not applicable to all mental disorders.
• Weakness: Untestable Concepts- does not meet scientific criteria of falsification. Not open to empirical testing, ie. possibility of being disproved, Freuds concepts (tripartite personality and Oedipus/Electra complexes) occuring at unconscious level, THEREFORE difficult to test. His ideas are based around subjective studies of single individuals (little Hans) THEREFORE, difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour. Freuds theory is pseudoscientific, not established fact.
• Weakness: Psychodynamic approach is deterministic, “psychic determinism”. Implies abnormalities are unavoidable if person’s childhood and experiences with parents (didnt choose- destiny) affects them in negative way. (e.g. trauma in psychosexual stages - cause fixation in adulthood) Implies people have NO FREE WILL, and are at mercy of surroundings/upbringing. Unrealistic assumption. There are examples of people with problematic childhood who have no fixation in adulthood, live well balanced lives.

Question 37

Briefly describe humanstic approach, not including different researchers yet.

Answer 37

Humanistic psychology is known as third force, alongside behaviourism + psychodyanamic.

Humanistic psychology believes people are self determining and therefore have free will. Everyone is unique, psychology should be concerned with subjective experiences (not general laws). Principle led to approach called:

“Person centered approach”.

Question 38

Humanistic Approach: outline Maslow’s theory:

Answer 38

• Malsow, humanistic psychologist, argued we have hierarchy of needs. We have innate tendency to try to fulfill our potential by trying to satisfy the needs progressively up hierarchy. If done to greatest extent possible, achieved self-actualisation.

Question 39

Humanistic Approach: Outline Rogers theory:

Answer 39

Rogers, also humanistic psychologist, discussed concept of person growth which is concerned with moving towards becoming fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated. In order to achieve personal growth, must be congruence between self concept and ideal self. According to Rogers, people may have problems in later life due to lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood, leading to feelings of worthlessness. Rogers developed client-centered therapy to help ppl with large gap between self-concept and ideal self.

Question 40

Humanistic Approach: define conditions of worth (Rogers)

Answer 40

CoW: criteria put in place by others which set limits or boundaries on love or acceptance.

Question 41

Humanistic Approach: define congruence (Rogers)

Answer 41

Congruence = The equivalency of our perceived self and ideal self. Must be fairly equivalent to achieve self-actualisation.

Question 42

Humanistic Approach: define self-actualisation (Maslow)

Answer 42

S.A. = uppermost level of hierarchy. Signifies growth and fulfilling potential .

Question 43

Humanistic Approach: define “the self” (Rogers)

Answer 43

the self = how we percieve ourselves and how we envision ourselves in ideal world.

Question 44

Humanistic Approach: define free will

Answer 44

Free Will is the idea that humans are self-determining and are active agents in determining their own development.

Question 45

Evaluate the Humanistic Approach:

Answer 45

Not reductionist:
Strength: H.A. rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components (reductionism).
Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections. Cognitive approach see human beings as little more than information-processing ‘machines’.
Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes.
Freud described the whole of personality as
a conflict between three things: Id, Ego and Superego. In contrast, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context.

COUNTERPOINT:
Having said that, reductionist approaches
may be more scientific. This is because the ideal of science is the experiment, and experiments reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables. One issue with humanistic psychology is that, unlike behaviourism, there are relatively few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measured.
This means that humanistic psychology in general is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.

WEAKNESS: Western culturally-biased.
Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more readily associated with** individualist cultures in the Western world**such as the United States. Collectivist cultures , such as India , emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence. Such cultures may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology (such as self-actualisation).
Therefore, it is possible that this approach does not apply universally and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed.

Critics have argued that humanistic psychology has had relatively little impact in psychology- or little practical application in the real world (in comparison with other approaches, such as behaviourism or the biological approach). The approach has been described, not as a comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of abstract ideas.
On the other hand, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation , particularly in the workplace.

Question 46

How does each approach view development of children?

Answer 46

1. the psychodynamic approach presents the most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age. That said, Freud saw very little further development once a child enters the genital stage in the teen years.
2. Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to our understanding of child development. For example, as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts (schema) as they get older.
3. Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics.
4. Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing throughout life. However childhood is a particularly important period and a child’s relationship with their parents is important in terms of unconditional positive regard.
5. Finally, the behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not offer coherent stage theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age.

Question 47

Discuss the “Nature Vs Nurture” arguement in all of the approaches:

Answer 47

Behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes about through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or, in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation.

In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents (genotype), though the way it is expressed is influenced by the environment (phenotype).

Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts, but he also saw relationships with parents as playing a fundamental role in future development.

Similarly, humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept.

Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate, they are constantly refined through experience.

Question 48

Outline the Biological Approach:

Answer 48

Question 49

Evaluate the Biological Approach:

Answer 49

• Strength: real world application; bio approach allows for understanding of neurochemical processes in brain associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. e.g. antidepressants, increases serotonin and reduces depressive symptoms. Good as people can manage mental condition and live relatively normal life. THEREFORE biological approach is useful as it has helped people with treatment.
• COUNTERPOINT: Cipriani et al, 2018, compared 21 antidepressants drugs and found wide variations in effectiveness. Challenges value of biological approach. It suggests brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of mental disorders like depression. THEREFORE, theory and treatment not applicable to everyone.
• Strength: Biological approach uses scientific method of investigation. In order to investigate genetic and biological basis of behaviour, bio appr uses precise and objective methods. E.g. fMRIs and EEGs. With tech improving in future, it is foreseeable that we can accurately measure physiological and neural processes that are not biased. THEREFORE Bio appr based on reliable data so internally valid.
• Weakness: Biological Determinism, sees human behaviour entirely under influence of genes which we have no control over. Purely genetic arguement problematic in crime - ‘crime gene’, is it truly their fault?? THEREFORE, Bio appr too simplistic and ignores mediating effects of environment.

COUNTERPOINT: Phenotype - gene affected by environment too….. reciprocal determinism?