Chapter 3- Attachment

Question 1

Define Reciprocity:

Answer 1

Reciprocity is the caregiver-infant interaction where both respond to each signals and elicits a response from the other.

Question 2

What is Interactional Synchrony?

Answer 2

Cregiver and baby reflect each other actions + emotions of other in co-ordinated way.

Question 3

What is Attachment?

Answer 3

Close 2 way emotional bond between 2 individuals in which each individual sees other as essential for emotional security.

Question 4

What are the ways to recognise an attachment?

Answer 4

1. Proximity - physically close to attachment figure.
2. Separation Distress - signs of anxiety when attachment figure leaves
3. Secure-base behaviour - regular contact whilst remaining independent from attachment figure.

Question 5

What are ‘Alert Phases’?

Answer 5

• Babies have periodic alert phases
• they signal (eye contact) for spell of interaction
• Feldman + Eidelman- mother pick up + respond ⅔ of the time.
• Varies according to skill of mother (Finegood et al)
  
  • Feldman says : responsiveness to signals becomes increasingly more often. = ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT.

Question 6

What were the procedures and findings to Meltzoff and Moore’s research on interactional synchrony?

Answer 6

• Controlled Observation
• 4 different stimuli tested and observed behaviour of baby in response.
• Videotapes were watched and independent observers recorded instances of each behaviour
• Behaviours were: mouth-opening, mouth-closing, tongue protrusion, retraction of tongue.
• Each observer scored tapes twice,
• Intra + Inter rater reliability calculated.
• All scores above 9.2
• High levels of interactional synchrony found.
  
  • Isabella et all - found high levels of synchrony in better quality mother-baby attachment,

Question 7

What were the stages of development by Schaffer + Emerson?

Answer 7

Question 8

What were the Procedures and Findings to Schaffer and Emerson’s research on Stages of attachment development:

Answer 8

Procedures:

• Sample of 60 babies (31 male, 29 female)
• working class families babies
• Longitudinal Study - mother + baby studied every month for 1 year + 18months
• Observations + interviews to record data
• Mothers interviewed about kinds of behaviour baby displayed in 7 everyday situations.
• Assessed Separation anxiety + Stranger anxiety.

Findings:

• between 25-32 weeks: 50% babies showed separation anxiety towards primary attach. fig.
• = specific attachment to primary attachment figure (usually person who was most reciprocal)
• Around same time, infant displayed stranger anxiety.
• By 40 weeks: 80% had specific attachment, 30% had multiple attachment
• Suggests pattern to attachment- biologically controlled.

Question 9

Evaluate Schaffer and Emerson’s research techniques on stages of attachment development:

Answer 9

Question 10

Define research that supports the importance of the role of the father:

Answer 10

• Schaffer and Emerson: Infants form secondary attachment to father within few weeks of making primary attachment. 75% of infants studied, secondary attachment formed to father by 18 months. Infants protested when father walked away.
• Grossman: quality of father’s play with infants related to quality of adolescent attachments. Suggests fathers have diff. role in attachment (play + stimulation), less to do with nurturing.
• Field: when fathers take on primary attachment figure role, they adopt maternal characteristics. Filmed 4 month old babies interacting with secondary attach. fathers and primary attach. father; primary fathers spent time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary father. Fathers can be the more nurturing figure, key to level of attachment is level of responsiveness, not gender of parent.

Question 11

Define research that does not support the importance of the role of the father:

Answer 11

• Schaffer and Emerson: majority of babies did become attached to their mother first (around 7months). Therefore, primary attachment figure is more likely to be the mother. In only 3% of cases was father the P.A.F.
• It is possible that men are not psychologically equipped to form intense attachment, they lack emotional sensitivity that women have. May be due to biological (hormones like oestrogen, women biologically predisposed) or social factors. The fact that fathers do not become P.A.F. could be due to gender roles, women expected to be more caring and nurturing then men. Therefore, father don’t feel they should act that way.
• Grossman: carried out longitudinal study looking at mother and father role in attachment and its implications into child adolescence. Quality of infant attachment to mother, not fathers, was related to child attachments in teenhood, suggesting fathers less important.

Question 12

What is a primary attachment figure?

Answer 12

• A person whom infant most intensely attached. The person child responds to most intensely at separation.

Question 13

What is a secondary attachment figure?

Answer 13

A person that infant receives additional support from. They provide an emotional safety net.

Question 14

Evaluate research into the role of fathers:

Answer 14

• LIMITATION: Research into role of father in attachment lacks clarity because researchers ask different Qs- some interested in role of father as secondary attachment, some concerned with role of father as primary attachment figure. This makes it difficult to distinguish role of father, as the research is conflicting. Research looks at different aspects of fathering, so difficult to discuss specific role.
• LIMITATION: findings of Grossman’s longitudinal study are conflicting. On one hand, study suggests that fathers (as S.A.F.) have important + distinct role in child development, involving play + stimulation. But this suggests that children in single-mother or same-sex parent families develop differently, which according to McCallum and Golombok, is false, these children develop same as heterosexual family. This questions whether fathers have distinctive role.
  
  • COUNTER: However, it could be that fathers typically take distinct roles in heterosexual families, but in single mother/ lesbian parent families, they adapt to accommodate role played by fathers. When present, fathers tend to adopt specific role, but families can adapt to not having a father.
• STRENGTH: real world application, used to advice parents- mothers sometimes feel pressured to stay at home (stereotypes on roles), fathers feel pressure to focus on work and not on parenting (may not work in families where mother is bread-winner). Research into role of fathers can be reassuring, knowing that fathers are capable of being P.A.F., and likewise role of father can be adapted into families without one.

Question 15

Describe Lorenz’s research on animal studies of attachment:

Answer 15

Question 16

Describe Harlow’s research into animal studies of attachment:

Answer 16

Question 17

Evaluate Lorenz’s research:

Answer 17

Question 18

Evaluate Harlow’s research:

Answer 18

Question 19

What are the Learning Theories of formation of attachment?

Answer 19

Question 20

What is ‘drive reduction’ as a concept of how attachment is formed.

Answer 20

Hunger = primary drive (innate, biological motivator)

(motivated to eat to reduce hunger drive)

Sears et al → caregivers provide food so attachment is secondary drive learned by association between caregiver and satisfaction of primary drive.

Question 21

Evaluate Learning Theory research into explanations of formations of attachment:

Answer 21

• LIMITATION: lack of support from animal studies: Lorenz’s geese imprinted on first moving object, regardless of food. Harlow’s monkey displayed attachment to soft surrogate not food surrogate. Therefore, factors other than association with food important in formation of attachment.
• LIMITATION: lack of support from human baby studies. Schaffer and Emerson → babies tended to form main attachment with mother regardless if she was the one feeding them. Isabella et al → level of interactional synchrony predicted quality of attachment, not food. Therefore, food not main factor in formation of attachment.
• STRENGTH: It is unlikely food plays central role in attachment, but conditioning does → baby may associate feeling warm and comfort with presence of certain adult = influence choice of P.A.F. Learning theory, therefore, useful in understanding development of attachments.
  
  • COUNTER: Classical and Operant conditioning suggest that baby plays passive role in formation of attachment, but research done by Feldman and Eidelman suggests that babies play active role in interactions which make attachment. Therefore, conditioning is not adequate explanation of any aspect of attachment.
• Hay + Vespo suggest that parents teach kids to love them by demonstrating (modelling) attachment behaviours. Parents reinforce loving behaviour by showing approval when babies display their own attachment behaviours. = SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. Better explanation as shows two-way dynamic between baby and adult, fits better with research on reciprocity.

Question 22

What is Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory?

Answer 22

1. Monotropy: one particular attachment that is diff. from others + of central importance to child’s development
2. Principles:
   
   1. Law of Continuity: more constant + predictable care = better quality of attachment
   2. Law of Accumulated Separation: effect of every separation from mother add up and ‘safest dose is zero dose’
3. Social Releasers: innate mechanisms that encourage attention from adults (activate adult interaction, e.g. cooing, attachment is reciprocal process, mother + baby hardwired to become attached)
4. Critical Period: time period where attachment must form if to form at all. Human babies have sensitive period of up to 1½ years - after = difficult to form attachment
5. Internal Working Model: mental representation of world, the representation we have of own relationship to P.A.F. forms expectation that all relationships like that. The basis of our perceptions of what relationships are like is formed and carried throughout life.

Question 23

Evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory:

Answer 23

• LIMITATION: concept of monotropy lacks validity: Schaffer and Emerson found that significant majority of babies formed multiple attachments at one. Although 1st attachment has influence on later behaviour, does not mean that other attachments are a different quality. Means that Bowlby may be incorrect that there is unique quality and importance to child’s primary attachment.
• STRENGTH: evidence for social releasers; Brazelton et al observed babies trigger interactions with adults using social releasers- researchers instructed babies’ P.A.F. to ignore social releasers. Babies became increasingly distressed when there was no response. This shows role of social releasers in emotional development, important process of attachment.
• STRENGTH: support for internal working model- Bailey et al assessed attachment in 99 mothers and their 1 y/o babies. Found that mothers with poor attachment to their own P.A.F. were more likely to have poorly attached babies. Supports bowbly’s theory that mother ability to form attachment to own child is influenced by internal working model.
  
  • COUNTER: other influences too: Kornienko; genetic diff. in anxiety and sociability affect social behaviour in babies and adults. Therefore, bowlby overstated importance of internal working model at expense of other factors.
• NEGATIVE: law of cont. and accumulated separation suggest that mothers who work negatively impact child’s emotional development- these beliefs sets up mothers to take the blame for anything that goes wrong in the future.
  
  • BUT! During Bowlby’s time, women’s role in society not yet established. Bowlby has contributed to society (real world appl.) as key workers now know how to form proper attachment to babies.

Question 24

What were the procedures to Ainsworth’s Strange Situation?

Answer 24

Question 25

What were the findings of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation?

Answer 25

Question 26

Evaluate Ainsworth’s Strange Situation:

Answer 26

Question 27

Outline van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research in cultural variations of the Strange Situation:

Also briefly outline Simonelli et al, Jin et al.

Answer 27

• van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg did a meta-analysis and found that in all countries secure attachment was most common classification.
• Insecure-resistant overall least common type and insecure-avoidant were observed most commonly in Japan and least in Japan.
• Variation within cultures was 150% greater than between cultures.

Simonelli → sample of 76 12m/o babies and tested attachment type using Strange Situation in Italy. 50% secure, 36% insecure-avoidant. Lower rate of secure attachment than in other studies

Jin → researched proportions of attachments types in Korea + compared to other studies. Secure attachment was most common but insecure-resistant was more common than insecure-avoidant. But overall proportions similar to other countries.

Question 28

Evaluate research into cultural variations in attachment:

Answer 28

• LIMITATION: The strange situation works different in UK + USA compared with Germany. E.g. baby’s lack of affection interpreted as independence, not avoidance. So S.S. is example of imposed etic. Behaviours have diff. meaning in diff. cultures- cannot be compared.
• STRENGTH: Research is done by indigenous psychologists. Avoids misunderstandings (e.g. language). This means that researchers and PPs communicate successfully so validity of data increased.
  
  • COUNTER: some studies not conducted by indigenous researchers, e.g. Morelli and Tronick were Americans who studied child-rearing and attachment in Zaire. Some research findings could be affected by bias because of problems in cross-cultural communication, reducing validity.
• LIMITATION: confounding variables in cross cultural studies- studies from diff. cultures used in meta-analysis not usually matched. So variables like room size may explain why babies seek proximity more than others. Means that non-matched studies may not tell us much about cross-cultural patterns of attachment.

Question 29

What is Bowlby’s Maternal Depreivation Theory? Outline the procedures and findings.

Answer 29

Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis says: continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.

Question 30

According to Bowlby, what is required for a child during separation to monotropic figure to prevent him/her from being deprived and being effected cognitively, emotionally and socially?

Answer 30

Quality Emotional Care!!!

Question 31

Evaluate Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis:

Answer 31

Question 32

Outline the procedures and findings of Rutter’s ERA on Institutionalisation in Romain Orphanages:

Answer 32

Question 33

Outline Zeenah ‘05’s procedures and findings on Institutionalisation:

Answer 33

Question 34

What does disinhibited mean?

Answer 34

Question 35

Evaluate research on effects of Institutionalisation on child attachment:

Answer 35

Question 36

Outline studies that support Continuity hypothesis and Internal Working Model:

Answer 36

Question 37

Evaluate research on influence of early attachment on later relationships:

Answer 37